挧熕話 (Ulduga kele) — Ural-Altaic conlang in East Asia
Posted: 12 Sep 2020 22:26
I finally decided to post this, it's not "finished" by any means and probably never will be, but it's been a while since I worked on it and kinda dropped the motivation ball so I figured it's better to post it now or the months I spent on it will have been wasted. Obviously I meant to flesh the grammar out a lot more and stuff, but well. Maybe posting something concrete about it will get me motivated to continue working on it, I think it's not as stupid as most of my conlangs so maybe there's still some potential in it.
The idea was originally to make an Uralic conlang set on a fictional island near Japan and with heavy influence from Japanese, but then I decided to set it in China instead while still having Japanese influences. As I was working on it, it gradually became more and more Altaic so I decided it's better anyway to make it a vaguely Ural-Altaic language whose exact relationship is unclear. There are also some minor similarities to Yeniseian and Yukaghir at least in vocabulary, too, intended to be a "who knows if they're coincidental or not?" type of a thing. So, I guess it could be called "Para-Ural-Altaic" or something, but considering Altaic is (probably) not even a language family but a sprachbund... well, "Ural-Altaic" works best, I think.
It's admittedly a pretty bland conlang tbh, at least so far there aren't any cool semantic shifts or anything and its grammar is really simple, but well.
Conculture/althistory stuff in this post.
Example sentences in this post.
PHONOLOGY
/m n ŋ/ <m n ng>
/p b t d k g (ʔ)/ <p b t d k g '>
/kʷ (gʷ)/ <kw gw>
/t͡s (d͡z) t͡ʃ d͡ʒ/ <ts dz ch j>
/s z ʃ (ʒ)/ <s z sh zh>
/j w h/ <y w h>
/r l/ <r l>
/t͡ɬ/ <cl>
/ɑ e i o u/ <a e i o u>
/ɑː eː iː oː uː/ <ā ē ī ō ū>
/ʔ/ only comes about due to syllable breaks and may be dropped, in which case usually a difference in pitch occurs
/gʷ ʒ/ only come about due to voicing assimilation, so they might not count as full phonemes.
The distinction between /d͡ʒ/ and /ʒ/ is rarely made, and in practice both are [d͡ʒ~ʒ] in free variation.
The distinction between /d͡z/ and /z/ is rarely made, the former only coming about due to voicing assimilation of /t͡ɬ/ and commonly merging with /z/.
Both of the above, however, are considered distinct in the standard language and educated speakers may preserve the distinctions in loanwords.
All consonants are palatalised to some degree before /i/.
In standard speech, before /e/ only /k g/ are palatalised; the palatalisation ranges from minimal to as prominent as before /i/. In various dialects not strictly confined to any single part of the dialect continuum, various other consonants (up to all of them) can be palatalised very strongly before both /e i/; dialects that palatalise /m p b/ before /e/ universally also palatalise /t d/, while /n/ is usually only palatalised in dialects that also palatalise /r l/.
Some northeastern dialects merge /t͡s d͡z s z/ with /t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ ʒ/ before /e i/, while southeastern dialects merge them only before /i/; most dialects don't merge them even before /i/, maintaining the distinction as /t͡s d͡z s z/ [t̻͡s̪ʲ d̻͡z̪ʲ s̪ʲ z̪ʲ] and /t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ ʒ/ [t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ɕ ʑ]. Western dialects may have [t͡ʂ d͡ʐ ʂ ʐ] before back vowels and [t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ɕ ʑ] before front vowels, or in some far northwestern dialects where the distinction has become one of aspiration, [t͡ʂʰ t͡ʂ] and [t͡ɕʰ t͡ɕ]. In standard speech, /t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ ʒ/ are [t͡ʃ~t͡ɕ d͡ʒ~d͡ʑ ʃ~ɕ ʒ~ʑ] regardless of environment, although [t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ɕ ʑ] are (almost) universal before /i/.
/p t k t͡s t͡ʃ/ tend to be lightly aspirated, while /kʷ t͡ɬ/ tend to be unaspirated. In certain northern dialects, aspiration can be strong and apply to all voiceless plosives; in some far northern dialects the codification of aspiration can be so pervasive that voiced plosives may be pronounced as voiceless. In the standard language, the level of aspiration does not matter but pronouncing voiced plosives as voiceless is considered a speech impediment.
/k/ is usually [k̠~q] before /ɑ o/ and sometimes before /u/, while /kʷ/ tends to be [kʷ~k̠ʷ]
Usually, /g/ is [ɣ~ɣ̠~ʁ] between back vowels. This is why the language and people's endonym is sometimes transliterated eg. <Uldugha> rather than <Ulduga> in some languages, but the official romanisation is <Ulduga>.
/w/ can be [w~ʋˠ~ʋ~β̞ˠ~β̞], and when palatalised it usually becomes [ʋʲ~β̞ʲ~vʲ~βʲ].
Intervocalically, /z/ can be pronounced as a dental fricative [ð]; it may even approach a pre-alveolar approximant [ɹ̟]. Word-initially and after nasals, it is most often an affricate [d͡z].
/n t d t͡s d͡z s l t͡ɬ/ can be dental [n̪ t̪ d̪ t̻͡s̪ d̻͡z̪ s̪ l̪ t̻͡ɬ̪] or alveolar [n t d t͡s d͡z s l t͡ɬ] in free variation, even inconsistently
The allophones of /h/ in standard speech are:
[x̠~χ~χˤ] before /ɑ/
[h~hˠ~x] before /e/
[ç~xʲ~hʲ] before /i/
[x̠~χ~χˤ] before /o/
[x~x̠~χ] before /u/
/r l/ are most commonly realised as:
[r l] word-initially
[ɾ ɮ] intervocalically
[r̝ ɮ] before voiced consonants
[r̝̊ ɬ] before voiceless consonants
[ɾ l] after consonants
[ɾ̞̊ ɬ] word-finally
However, in southern dialects, they tend to be [r~ɾ l~ɺ] in all environments, and in far southeastern dialects they often even merge, retaining only allophonic distinction of [ɾ] in syllable onsent and [l] in coda. In the standard language, it's considered acceptable to use the above allophones or [r~ɾ l] everywhere, but [ɺ] for /l/ is considered a speech impediment. Western dialects tend to have [ɹ~ɹ̠~ɻ] for /r/ at least in coda, and in far southwestern dialects even [ɻ̝~ʐ] is possible; in the standard language, coda [ɹ~ɹ̠] is considered acceptable, but [ɻ~ɻ̝~ʐ] is considered a speech impediment.
Intervocalically, the distinction between /ng/ and /ŋ/ is typically lost even in standard speech, both being pronounced [ŋ~ŋˑ~ŋː] in free variation.
/ɑ/ can be [ɐ~a~æ] when syllables surrounding it have front vowels. Most commonly, though, it's [ɑ~a̠~ɐ̠].
/i/ can be [ɨ~ɨ̞~ɯ̽] when syllables surrounding it have back vowels. Most commonly, though, it's [i~ɪ].
/e/ can be [ə~ɜ~ɛ] when syllables surrounding it have back vowels, or when the only vowel in a word is /e/. Most commonly, though, it's [e̞~ə̟].
/o/ can be [ɞ~ɵ̞] when syllables surrounding it have front vowels. Most commonly, though, it's [o̞~ɔ].
/u/ can be [ʏ~ʉ] when syllables surrounding it have front vowels. Most commonly, though, it's [u~ʊ].
Long vowels have no notable quality difference from short vowels, although sometimes they may be less prone to being centralised.
GRAMMAR
The default word order is SOV, so generally speaking marking some cases and using some particles is optional unless other word orders are used or sentences get complex enough to warrant it. The more formal the text or speech, the more redundant it can get.
NOUN DECLENSION
In collective nouns, plurals are usually not written even if pronounced. It's uncommon to use a plural suffix at all, but sometimes they're used.
plural: 多 -tV [after vowels and /n t r l/; optional]
plural: 多 -atV/etV/etV/otV/otV [after consonants; optional]
This suffix is more common than the one below, but has almost as much variation in the possible vowels when added to words that aren't usually pluralised. It does have regular vowels after consonants, but the final vowels can be very unpredictable in the words that have standardised plural forms. Although /ta/ is most common, it's far from universal.
plural: 等 -r(V) [after vowels; optional]
plural: 等 -ar(V)/er(V) [after consonants; optional]
It's rare for this suffix to have a final vowel, but when it does have one, it's often unpredictable and inconsistent even in the speech of the same speaker. In fossilised words with a plural, they're consistent, though, of course.
MONOSYLLABIC ROOTS
nominative: -Ø
accusative: 乎 -bo
accusative: 乎 -mo [if the consonant is /p b/]
genitive: 之 -no
agentive: 补 -n [rarely used in simple sentences]
instrumental: 以 -n
comitative: 与 -na/ne
ornative: 被 -ba/be/be/bo/bo
dative: 向 -nga/nge
dative: 向 -na/ne [if the consonant is /g/]
ablative: 从 -ta/te
locative: 在 -na/ne
temporal: 時 - nna/nne
comparative: 似 - da/de
essive: 況 -nna/nne/nne/nno/nno
abessive: 無 -tara/tere/tiri/toro/toro
abessive: 無 -tala/tele/tili/tolo/tolo [if the consonant is /r/]
POLYSYLLABIC ROOTS
nominative: -Ø
accusative: 乎 -m
genitive: 之 -n
agentive: 补 -n [rarely used in simple sentences]
instrumental: 以 -n
comitative: 与 -n
ornative: 被 -ba/be/be/bo/bo
dative: 向 -ga/ge
dative: 向 -na/ne [if the last consonant is /ŋ g/]
ablative: 从 -ta/te
locative: 在 -na/ne
temporal: 時 - nna/nne
comparative: 似 - da/de
essive: 況 -nna/nne/nne/nno/nno
abessive: 無 -tar/ter/tir/tur/tur
abessive: 無 -tal/tel/til/tul/tul [if the last consonant is /r/]
IMPORTANT NOTE:
If the stem ends in /n r l/, a vowel is added before the 乎, 之, 补, 以, 与, 在, 時 and 況 - the harmonic variants are: a-i-i-u-u
NOTES:
With the default SOV word order, direct objects are usually not marked with the accusative suffix except in very formal writing. With different word orders, it is more common to decline them, but still not necessary because the indirect object is declined. Monosyllabic words may be more likely to be take the accusative suffix even with SOV word order.
貓向家與咔 = 貓向家乎與咔
maya.ga koto anda.kka = maya.ga koto.m anda.kka
cat.DAT home give.IMP = cat.DAT home.ACC give.IMP
"give the cat a home"
The temporal case can be used with any noun, indicating that an action happens when that noun is present, or in the case of nouns referring to events or such, during the event; in the latter case, it can refer to an individual instance, but the more common usage is the former.
IRREGULAR DECLENSION OF '名 (nimu) - name'
nominative: 名 (nimu)
accusative: 名乎 (nim)
genitive: 名之 (nimun)
agentive: 名补 (nimun)
instrumental: 名以 (nimun)
comitative: 名与 (nimun)
ornative: 名被 (nimbe)
dative: 名向 (ninge)
ablative: 名从 (ninde)
locative: 名在 (ninne)
temporal: 名時 (nimune)
comparative: 名似 (nimunde)
abessive: 名無 (nintur)
IRREGULAR DECLENSION OF '人多 (koita) - people'
nominative: 人多 (koita)
accusative: 人多乎 (koito)
genitive: 人多之 (kuton)
agentive: 人多补 (kuton)
instrumental: 人多以 (kuton)
comitative: 人多与 (kuton)
ornative: 人多被 (kutaba)
dative: 人多向 (koida)
ablative: 人多从 (kutte)
locative: 人多在 (koide)
temporal: 人多時 (koide)
comparative: 人多似 (koitte)
essive: 人多況 (kuton)
abessive: 人多無 (kutur)
ADJECTIVE DECLENSION
comparative: 匕 -ba/be
mirative comparative: 比 -mba/mbe
superlative: 最 -mata/mete/mete/moto/moto [after monosyllabic roots]
superlative: 最 -nda/nde/nde/ndo/ndo [after polysyllabic roots]
adverbial: 然 -n
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after monosyllabic roots]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after /m/, which assimilates -> /nn/ or two vowels]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after the abessive suffix /tVr/~/tVl/, which assimilates -> /tVnnan/~/tVnnen/]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after the abessive suffix /tVrV/, which assimilates -> /tVrran/~/tVrren/]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after the abessive suffix /tVlV/, which assimilates -> /tVllan/~/tVllen/]
abessive: 弗 -tar/ter/tir/toro/toro [after monosyllables]
abessive: 弗 -tal/tel/til/tolo/tolo [after monosyllables if the last consonant is /r/]
abessive: 弗 -tar/ter/tir/tur/tur
abessive: 弗 -tal/tel/til/tul/tul [if the last consonant is /r/]
VERB CONJUGATION
negative: 不 na/ne- [before a consonant]
negative: 不 n- [before a vowel]
prohibitive: 勿 ba/bi/bi/bu/bu- [before a consonant]
prohibitive: 勿 ban/bin/bin/bun/bun- [before a vowel]
~stem~
honorific: 卬 -ki- [induces voicing, except in 咔 and 仍了]
conditional: 即 -sha/she/shi/sha/sho-
modal: 応 -lge/lgi/lgi/lge/lgi- [should, must; induces voicing in 可, 仍 and 可了]
passive: 匉 -la/le-
causative: 使 -ta/te/te/ta/to- [induces voicing, except in 咔]
desiderative: 欲 -sō- [induces voicing, except in 咔 and 仍了]
suddenly: 乍 -ja- [induces voicing, except in 咔 and 仍了]
reciprocal: 互 -nama/neme- [induces voicing, except in 咔 and 仍了]
reciprocal: 互 -nam/nem- [if final]
non-past: -Ø
past: 了 -da/de
inchoative: 始 -lga
terminative: 住 -kul
progressive: 延 -dim
habitual: 仍 -taga/tege
habitual: 仍 -daga/dege [after /ttV/]
epistemic 1: 能 -nu/ni [able to]
epistemic 2: 可 -sā/sē [allowed to]
imperative: 咔 -kka/kke
connective: 合 -l [used to join verbs together; if following verb begins with a vowel or /m p b t d k g kʷ t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ t͡ɬ/]
connective: 合 -la/li/li/lu/lu [used to join verbs together; if following verb begins with other consonants]
progressive imperative: 咔延 -kkadim/kkedim [eg. "keep practising!"]
progressive epistemic 1: 能延 -ndim [after short vowels]
progressive epistemic 1: 能延 -nudim/nidim [after long vowels]
progressive epistemic 2: 可延 -sādim/sēdim
inchoative epistemic 1: 能始 -nulga/nilga
inchoative epistemic 1: 可始 -salga/selga
past progressive: 延了 -dinda/dinde
past habitual: 仍了 -tāda/tēde
past epistemic 1: 能了 -nda/nde [was/were able to]
past epistemic 2: 可了 -satta/sette [was/were allowed to]
past reciprocal: 互了 -namida/nemide
interrogative: 吗 -ma/me/me/mo/mo [after a vowel]
interrogative: 吗 -am/em/em/om/om [after a consonant]
adverbial: 然 -n [after a vowel]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after /m/, which assimilates -> /nn/ or two vowels]
The inchoative and terminative can be used on their own to indicate "to start [verb]-ing" and "to stop [verb]-ing" respectively, but can also be combined with other verbal suffixes.
The difference between the negative imperatives is as follows, using the verb 食 (sebu, "to eat") as an example:
不食咔 (nesebukka) = do not eat [medium command; expected to be followed, but implies some choice]
不食応咔 (nesebulgikka) = you should not eat [strong recommendation; expected to be followed, but implies some choice]
勿食 (bisebu) = do not eat [soft command; not necessarily expected to be followed; used sarcastically or playfully, etc.]
勿食応 (bisebulgi) = you definitely should not eat [very strong recommendation; implies that something bad is going to happen if not followed]
勿食咔 (bisebukka) = absolutely do not eat [strong command; expected to be followed, implies consequences for disobediance; used by parents, etc.]
勿食応咔 (bisebulgikka) = you must absolutely not eat [very strong command; implies severe punishment for disobediance; used in military, etc.]
The pronunciation of a vowel in the connective 合 (-la/li/li/lu/lu) suffix is mostly restricted to formal speech, while in informal speech it's almost universally just an /l/. One exception is if consonant clusters considered difficult would arise, the most common ones being /l+ʃ/, /l+j/ and /l+r/, sometimes also /l+n/. However, in certain dialects or in the speech of some speakers even in the standard language, coda /l/ is pronounced very "weakly" and this makes even those clusters common enough.
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '是 (bolo) - to be; become'
non-past: 是 (bol) - is/are
past: 是了 (bolda) - was/were
inchoative: 是始 (bolga) - start(s) to become
terminative: 是住 (bogul) - became
progressive: 是延 (boldum) - is/are becoming
habitual: 是仍 (bolga) - tend(s) to be/become
epistemic 1: 是能 (bolon) - is able to be/become
epistemic 2: 是可 (bolozo) - is/are allowed to be/become
past progressive: 是延了 (bolunda) - was/were becoming
past habitual: 是仍了 (bollada) - used to be/become
past epistemic 1: 是能了 (bolonda) - was able to be/become
past epistemic 2: 是可了 (bolzotta) - was/were allowed to be/become
modal: 是応 (bolge) - should be [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '有 (oru) - to exist'
non-past: 有 (oru) - is/are~exist(s)
past: 有了 (orda) - was/were~existed
inchoative: 有始 (orulga) - come(s) into existence
terminative: 有住 (orgul) - stopped being~ceased to exist
progressive: 有延 (ordim) - is/are being
habitual: 有仍 (ortaga) - is/are usually
epistemic 1: 有能 (ordu) - can be~might exist
epistemic 2: 有可 (orzā) - is/are allowed to exist
past progressive: 有延了 (ordinda) - was/were being
past habitual: 有仍了 (ortāda) - was/were often
past epistemic 1: 有能了 (orunda) - might have existed
past epistemic 2: 有可了 (ōzotta) - was/were allowed to exist
modal: 有応 (olge) - should exist [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '作 (teke) - to do'
non-past: 作 (teke) - does/do
past: 作了 (tēde) - did
terminative: 作住 (tegil) - stopped doing
progressive: 作延 (tedim) - is/are doing
habitual: 作仍 (tekke) - tend(s) to do
epistemic 1: 作能 (tegen) - is able to do
epistemic 2: 作可 (tēze) - is/are allowed to do
past progressive: 作延了 (tende) - was/were doing
past habitual: 作仍了 (tekkede) - used to do
past epistemic 1: 作能了 (tegende) - was able to do
past epistemic 2: 作可了 (tegezette) - was/were allowed to do
modal: 作応 (telge) - should do [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '造 (meke) - to make'
non-past: 造 (meke) - makes~make
past: 造了 (mēde) - made
terminative: 造住 (megil) - stopped making
progressive: 造延 (medim) - is/are making
habitual: 造仍 (mekke) - tend(s) to make
epistemic 1: 造能 (megen) - is able to make
epistemic 2: 造可 (mēze) - is/are allowed to make
past progressive: 造延了 (mende) - was/were making
past habitual: 造仍了 (mekkede) - used to make
past epistemic 1: 造能了 (megende) - was able to make
past epistemic 2: 造可了 (megezette) - was/were allowed to make
modal: 造応 (melge) - should make [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '有 (i) - to have'
non-past: 有 (i) - has/have
past: 有了 (ide) - had
terminative: 有住 (il) - stopped having
progressive: 有延 (idim) - is/are having
habitual: 有仍 (ida) - tend(s) to have
epistemic 1: 有能 (yen) - is able to have
epistemic 2: 有可 (ize) - is/are allowed to have
past progressive: 有延了 (inde) - was/were having
past habitual: 有仍了 (yettede) - used to have
past epistemic 1: 有能了 (yende) - was able to have
past epistemic 2: 有可了 (izette) - was/were allowed to have
modal: 有応 (ilge) - should have [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '無 (obu) - to not have'
non-past: 無 (obu) - do(es) not have
past: 無了 (ōde) - did not have
terminative: 無住 (obul) - stopped not having
progressive: 無延 (ōdim) - is/are not having
habitual: 無仍 (ōda) - tend(s) to not have
epistemic 1: 無能 (oben) - is able to not have
epistemic 2: 無可 (ōzo) - is/are allowed to not have
past progressive: 無延了 (obunda) - was/were not having
past habitual: 無仍了 (oppoda) - used to not have
past epistemic 1: 無能了 (obonda) - was able to not have
past epistemic 2: 無可了 (ozotto) - was/were allowed to not have
modal: 無応 (obulga) - should not have [also stem; regular suffixes added]
VOCABULARY
PRONOUNS AND DETERMINERS
PRONOUNS [informal]
我 (mo) - I
尔 (to) - you
它 (so) - he, she, it
我乎 (mom) - me
尔乎 (tom) - you
它乎 (som) - him, her, it
我之 (mono) - my
尔之 (tono) - your
它之 (sono) - his, her, its
我向 (monga) - to/for me
尔向 (tonga) - to/for you
它向 (songa) - to/for him, her, it
我与 (mona) - with me
尔与 (tona) - with you
它与 (sona) - with him/her/it
我从 (motto) - from me
尔从 (totto) - from you
它从 (sotto) - from him/her/it
我似 (moda) - like me
尔似 (toda) - like you
它似 (soda) - like him/her/it
我等 (moro) - we
尔等 (toro) - you
它等 (soro) - they
我等乎 (morom) - us
尔等乎 (torom) - you
它等乎 (sorom) - them
我等之 (moron) - our
尔等之 (toron) - your
它等之 (soron) - their
我等向 (morga) - to/for us
尔等向 (torga) - to/for you
它等向 (sorga) - to/for them
我等与 (moran) - with us
尔等与 (toran) - with you
它等与 (soran) - with them
我等从 (moratta) - from us
尔等从 (toratta) - from you
它等从 (soratta) - from them
我等似 (morda) - like us
尔等似 (torda) - like you
它等似 (sorda) - like them
PRONOUNS [formal]
朕 (mon) - I
爾 (ton) - you
厥 (son) - he, she, it
朕乎 (mongo) - me
爾乎 (tongo) - you
厥乎 (songo) - him, her, it
朕之 (monno) - my
爾之 (tonno) - your
厥之 (sonno) - his, her, its
朕向 (monoga) - to/for me
爾向 (tonoga) - to/for you
厥向 (sonoga) - to/for him, her, it
朕与 (monna) - with me
爾与 (tonna) - with you
厥与 (sonna) - with him/her/it
朕从 (monto) - from me
爾从 (tonto) - from you
厥从 (sonto) - from him/her/it
朕似 (monda) - like me
爾似 (tonda) - like you
厥似 (sonda) - like him/her/it
朕達 (mire) - we
爾達 (tire) - you
厥達 (sire) - they
朕達乎 (merum) - us
爾達乎 (terum) - you
厥達乎 (serum) - them
朕達之 (minno) - our
爾達之 (tinno) - your
厥達之 (sinno) - their
朕達向 (mirge) - to/for us
爾達向 (tirge) - to/for you
厥達向 (sirge) - to/for them
朕達与 (minna) - with us
爾達与 (tinna) - with you
厥達与 (sinna) - with them
朕達从 (mirette) - from us
爾達从 (tirette) - from you
厥達从 (sirette) - from them
朕達从 (mirte) - from us [alternative]
爾達从 (tirte) - from you [alternative]
厥達从 (sirte) - from them [alternative]
朕達似 (mirde) - like us
爾達似 (tirde) - like you
厥達似 (sirde) - like them
PRONOUNS [alternative for both formal and informal usage]
私 (ata) - I; my [inalienable]
你 (oto) - you; your [inalienable]
他 (utu) - he, she, it; his, her, its [inalienable]
私乎 (abu) - me
你乎 (obu) - you
他乎 (ubu) - him, her, it
私之 (aga) - my [alienable]
你之 (oga) - your [alienable]
他之 (uga) - his, her, its [alienable]
私向 (azu) - to/for me
你向 (ozu) - to/for you
他向 (uzu) - to/for him, her, it
私与 (azu) - with me
你与 (ozu) - with you
他与 (uzu) - with him/her/it
私从 (agu) - from me
你从 (ogu) - from you
他从 (ugu) - from him/her/it
私似 (akō) - like me
你似 (okō) - like you
他似 (ukō) - like him/her/it
私們 (aban) - we; our [inalienable]
你們 (oban) - you; your [inalienable]
他們 (ubon) - they; their [inalienable]
私們乎 (ambu) - us
你們乎 (ombu) - you
他們乎 (umbu) - them
私們之 (anga) - our [alienable]
你們之 (onga) - your [alienable]
他們之 (unga) - their [alienable]
私們向 (amu) - to/for us
你們向 (omu) - to/for you
他們向 (umu) - to/for them
私們与 (amu) - with us
你們与 (omu) - with you
他們与 (umu) - with them
私們从 (anku) - from us
你們从 (onku) - from you
他們从 (unku) - from them
私們似 (ankō) - like us
你們似 (onkō) - like you
他們似 (unkō) - like them
皆 (yun) - everyone, everybody
皆乎 (yum) - everyone, everybody
皆之 (yuno) - everyone's, everybody's
皆向 (yugo) - to/for everyone, to/for everybody
皆与 (yunna) - with everyone, with everybody
皆从 (yutta) - from everyone, from everybody
皆似 (yunda) - like everyone, like everybody
The alienable/inalienable distinction in one set of pronouns may be an ancient relic or a later innovation. Either way, for some reason it exists.
DETERMINERS
兩 (katta) - both
何 (ma) - what
何 (na) - what [must be followed by a particle]
啥 (mi) - what
啥 (ni) - what [must be followed by a particle]
何物 (nāsa) - what thing [physical]
何事 (nāsa) - what thing [abstract]
何人 (nagoi) - who
此物 (tada) - this thing [close to speaker]
其物 (noda) - that thing [close to listener]
彼物 (kada) - that thing [far from both]
此 (ta) - this, these; this one, these ones [close to speaker]
其 (no) - that, those; that one, those ones [close to listener]
彼 (ka) - that, those; that one, those ones [far from both]
此人 (tagoi) - this person [close to speaker]
其人 (nogoi) - that person [close to listener]
彼人 (kagoi) - that person [far from both]
此所 (tadaga) - this place [close to speaker]
其所 (nodogo) - that place [close to listener]
彼所 (kadaga) - that place [far from both]
NOUNS
地球 (mābōl) - Earth
日 (yala) - sun
日 (pī) - sun [mostly in compounds]
昜 (naya) - sun
月 (kuo) - moon
星 (kutsu) - star
昜光 (naibalga) - sunlight
月光 (kunbalga) - moonlight
星光 (kutsubalga) - starlight
日 (ile) - day; sun
夜 (ei) - night
夜 (yulo) - night
日間 (ilgozo) - daytime
夜間 (eigozo) - night-time
週 (nabigi) - week
月 (kuo) - month
年 (ozo) - year
季節 (kwizette) - season
春 (tuogu) - spring
夏 (suo) - summer
秋 (suesi) - autumn
冬 (telbe) - winter
植季 (narabal) - planting season; sowing season
華季 (chiribal) - time of first blossoms
穫季 (udobal) - harvest season
雪季 (kuzubal) - time of first snow
北 (kuro) - north
東 (nogu) - east
南 (yumi) - south
西 (huru) - west
旭 (higara) - rising sun; emergence [of a positive thing]; up-and-comer [an entertainer, etc.]
旭人 (higartun) - up-and-comer [an entertainer, etc.]; fresh face
曛 (hingala) - sunset; twilight; dusk
瑳 (tsahara) - lustre, glitter, shine [of a gem or something likened to a gem either literally or figuratively]
水月 (utugū) - the moon reflected in water
水朋 (ubissui) - the moon reflected in water; unrequited love [for any reason]; deception [usually romantic and/or sexual]
水朋人 (ubissuidun) - an attractive person who is romantically and/or sexually out of reach [for any reason]; tease; deceiver, con-artist
太陽 (ennai) - sun; eastern or southern side of a mountain
太陰 (ensai) - moon; western or northern side of a mountain
小陽 (chonnai) - sun; eastern or southern side of a hill
小陰 (chossai) - moon; western or northern side of a hill
日月 (ilguo) - sun and moon; certainties of life; life
光 (kwalga) - light; beams or rays of light; gleam, glow
影 (saya) - shadow
火 (pīge) - fire, flame
火 (tulo) - fire, flame; blaze
水 (utu) - water
雪 (lumo) - snow
海 (tolu) - sea
湖 (delge) - lake
湖 (yelge) - lake
湖 (dele) - lake
湖 (yele) - lake
川 (kaba) - river
岸 (kana) - shore; bank; beach; edge of any body of water
海岸 (tolgan) - seashore
湖岸 (yelgen) - lakeshore
川岸 (kōgan) - riverbank
濱 (liogen) - beach [with sand]
海渡 (toburo) - bridge across a sea
湖渡 (yeburo) - bridge across a lake
川渡 (koburo) - river crossing; ford; bridge across a river
氷 (bolo) - ice
川氷 (kōbol) - river ice
湖氷 (yēbol) - lake ice
海氷 (tōbol) - sea ice
解氷 (shushum) - thaw
高準 (ippi) - high water; high tide; high water level
濕 (sizi) - moisture, wetness, dampness
颶 (kuro) - cyclone; typhoon; hurricane
風 (tulo) - wind
風水 (tullūtu) - wind and rain
熏 (kinde) - smoke; fog
霧 (sumo) - mist; vapour; fog
霞 (sumina) - mist; vapour; thin mist; visible air moisture
食 (sebika) - food
古人 (onkoi) - the ancients; ancestor
森 (kuru) - forest
森子 (kuruchu) - small forest
木 (puo) - tree
木子 (puochu) - small tree; bush; branch
枝 (oho) - branch; twig
菇 (kombu) - mushroom
體 (koro) - body [human or animal]
体 (koro) - body; form [can be used figuratively]
人體 (koigoro) - human body
人体 (yintei) - human body; human form [can be used figuratively]
人 (koi) - person; human being
人多 (koita) - people; humans; humanity [irregular]
男 (uru) - man; boy [15~20+ years old]
女 (ninge) - woman; girl [15~20+ years old]
男人 (urugoi) - man; men; males
女人 (ninkoi) - woman; women; females
㚻人 (temolgoi) - intersex/non-binary/transgender person; IS/NB/TG people
侽 (unji) - guy; general term for male person
㚢 (ninji) - girl; general term for female person
𠆧 (nunji) - general term for IS/NB/TG person
男子 (urgun) - boy; son
女子 (ningun) - girl; daughter
人子 (nungun) - child [of any gender]; non-binary child
子 (kun) - child
父 (aba) - father
母 (ana) - mother
爸 (aga) - dad
爸 (baba) - dad
妈 (ama) - mum
妈 (mama) - mum
老爸 (aga) - father; elderly male relative; t.o.a for older man
老母 (aba) - mother; elderly female relative; t.o.a for older woman
父母 (aga) - parent; term of address for older person
父母 (aba) - parent; term of address for older person
父母 (bumu) - father and mother; parents
㽒 (erge) - young man; term of address for younger man
娘 (nize) - young woman; term of address for younger woman
㳇 (aga) - elderly male relative; term of address for older man
姆 (ana) - elderly female relative; term of address for older woman
伯父 (chije) - paternal uncle [older than father]
叔父 (chije) - paternal uncle [younger than father]
伯母 (obo) - paternal aunt [older than father]
叔母 (obo) - paternal aunt [younger than father]
舅父 (chije) - maternal uncle [older than mother]
姨父 (chije) - maternal uncle [younger than mother]
舅母 (obo) - maternal aunt [older than mother]
姨母 (obo) - maternal aunt [younger than mother]
老男 (oguso) - old man; term of address for older man
老女 (ogume) - old woman; term of address for older woman
叟 (baka) - old man; old fool [historically honorific, now derogatory]
媼 (baka) - old woman; old fool [historically honorific, now derogatory]
老娚 (ikatsu) - elder relative
夭娚 (itsuda) - younger relative
弟妹 (itsu) - younger sibling
姊妹 (sazara) - sisters
兄弟 (acchere) - brothers
兄 (akke) - brother [older]
弟 (acche) - brother [younger]
姊 (saza) - sister [older]
妹 (saza) - sister [younger]
夫 (mukuru) - husband
夫 (ukū) - husband
妻 (okobe) - wife
妻 (okō) - wife
丈 (daran) - husband; man
婦 (maba) - wife; woman
娚 (naye) - married couple
婚 (naka) - marriage
族 (sugu) - family; clan; tribe; kin
會 (abā) - meeting, gathering
樂會 (hayabā) - party
鳥 (lundo) - bird
鷹 (koccho) - hawk, falcon, eagle
鴉 (kwara) - crow, raven
鴉子 (kwaruchu) - jackdaw
羽 (tulgo) - wing [of anything, incl. birds, insects, etc.]
羽子 (tulguchu) - feather
翼 (dipu) - wing [of a bird]; fin [of a fish, etc.]
水鳥 (leclege) - water bird
魚 (kala) - fish
島 (sime) - island
島子 (simichi) - small island, islet
嶋 (tō) - hilly or mountainous island
嶋子 (tebichi) - stack [geological formation]
丘 (tsugu) - hill
丘子 (tsuguchu) - small hill, hillock
山 (kwere) - mountain
岳 (korgwere) - tall mountain; high mountain
嶺 (kwerjē) - mountain ridge; mountain range
峯 (taga) - mountaintop; peak; summit
阜 (mette) - mound; heap
冢 (mette) - burial mound
穴 (angar) - hole; opening; cave; pit; lair, den; gateway
孔 (angar) - hole; opening; orifice; gateway
窞 (kwangge) - hole; pit; sinkhole
地穴 (bugumu) - tunnel; burrow; cave
關 (karon) - barrier; frontier pass
道 (huro) - road; path; way
砂 (lio) - sand
心 (sizem) - heart; mind; will; courage, strength; emotion
心臟 (sizem) - heart
腹 (hugu) - stomach, belly
顏 (nūro) - face
貌 (bezel) - facial appearance; facial features; looks
陰莖 (imhē) - penis
陰道 (indō) - vagina
硬枝 (charoho) - penis [poetic; lit. hard branch]
濕蛤 (sizijibi) - vagina; vulva [poetic; lit. moist clam]
胸 (kenge) - chest; bosom
奶 (pongo) - breast [of a woman]
乳 (ibe) - breast [of a woman]
乳 (ibesi) - milk [human]
乳 (siti) - milk [animal]
啂 (nodon) - nipple
馬 (luo) - horse
馬 (moru) - horse
黑馬 (kōmoru) - black horse
白馬 (sīmoru) - white horse
駹 (kōzīmoru) - black horse with a white face; black-and-white horse
騢 (pulzīmoru) - horse of mixed red and white colour; red roan; bay roan
騢 (jaroyo) - multicoloured horse
虹騢 (hilumjaroyo) - multicoloured horse; rainbow-coloured horse; "horse that can run to the end of a rainbow"
䮾騢 (morōjaroyo) - multicoloured horse; magnificent horse; massive horse; horse with dragon-like qualities
騩 (kolikkū) - demonic black horse
驪 (olugōmoru) - fine black horse
騜 (oluzīmoru) - fine white horse
䭸媽 (oshugebi) - all horses belonging to one person or family, etc.
驥 (olumoru) - fast horse
美紅馬 (uchūbulumoru) - Przewalski's horse [lit. beautiful red horse]
䭸 (oshu) - stallion
媽 (gebi) - mare
秣物 (urdumo) - horse fodder
羈 (kojo) - bridle
襲闖動 (salbucchoma) - horseback raid; expansion of territory by raids; capture of prisoners/slaves
襲闖動 (lūbucchoma) - horseback raid; expansion of territory by raids; imposition of one's will on others
戰 (shudo) - fight; battle; war
戰爭 (torjē) - war
犯 (manda) - crime; offence
罪 (mondo) - sin
慰 (tebe) - comfort; consolation; calm; contentment
原 (kende) - field, plain; meadow; grassland; steppe; pasture
原 (hala) - field, plain; meadow; grassland; steppe; pasture [often used in contexts evoking wilderness]
廓原 (nongu) - grassland; steppe; expanse of flat land [often used in contexts involving horses or battles]
草原 (yurmo) - meadow; grassland; prairie [often used in either a romanticising or disparging way]
家畜 (kajukku) - livestock
培動 (hurma) - cultivation; nurturing; fostering; maintainance
農業 (nōgō) - agriculture
農地 (nōdi) - farmland
高 (korgoka) - height; high place
龍 (morō) - dragon
曨 (tagamrō) - rising sun; dragon of the sun
朧 (odamrō) - rising moon; dragon of the moon
彩龍 (saramrō) - multicoloured dragon; colourful dragon; rainbow-coloured dragon; rainbow [poetic]
虹 (hilum) - rainbow
七彩 (tsittsai) - colours of the rainbow; many colours
天 (numa) - sky
畕天 (terunuma) - horizon
美天 (uchūnuma) - beautiful sky
神 (yumo) - spirit, deity [in general]; sky spirit
帝 (tanguru) - sky god
帝地 (tanguru) - abode of the gods
帝言 (tanguru) - an oath before the gods
天命 (tanguru) - will of the gods; Mandate of Heaven
聖地 (bōmā) - sacred place; hallowed ground
信 (ehe) - trust, faith, belief
言 (saba) - word
言言 (sabazaba) - incantation; mantra; slogan
聖言言 (bōzabazaba) - sacred incantation; magical formula; mantra
唵 (om) - om
言 (mono) - speech; word
叫 (muro) - shout, scream, yell
呱 (kwā) - cry, scream [of a baby]
話 (kele) - language
舌 (kele) - tongue
法 (hakaba) - law; rule
手 (kete) - hand
腕 (ketesso) - arm
腋 (konu) - armpit
足 (yalga) - foot
腳 (yalgassa) - leg
股 (poccho) - thigh
俣 (yarma) - crotch, groin
血 (uro) - blood
肉 (sili) - flesh, meat
骨 (luo) - bone
腱 (yerge) - cartilage, gristle; tendon
鱗 (seme) - scales [of a fish]
毛 (appa) - hair, fur
髮 (appa) - hair [on head]
鬒 (iclin) - glossy black hair
貓 (maya) - cat
乕 (hala) - tiger
乕獸 (halahū) - ferocious tiger; tiger; any tiger-like beast
䖘 (kecli) - striped rabbit [orig. Nesolagus sinensis]
兔 (yomol) - hare, rabbit
狼 (beri) - wolf
熊 (orgo) - bear [of any kind]; brown bear
熊 (korom) - bear [of any kind]; brown bear
羆 (hokkorom) - brown bear; grizzly bear; Kodiak bear; Kamchatka brown bear; any unusually large brown bear
大熊 (ho'orgo) - large bear
鹿 (tebe) - deer; elk; any kind of deer-like ungulate
鹿 (monoko) - deer; large horned deer
麕 (kurun) - roe deer; fallow deer; small deer; small horned deer
獐 (charangi) - water deer; small deer; small hornless deer
麂 (gili) - muntjac
貘 (maka) - giant panda
豕 (clika) - pig
野豬 (nōdzika) - wild boar
象 (clanga) - elephant
鮫 (korbu) - shark
蝶 (lebe) - butterfly
蠅 (clomu) - fly
馬蠅 (lūzomu) - horsefly; botfly
馬蠅 (mōzomu) - horsefly; botfly
蠶 (zumu) - silkworm
蚰蜒 (lulon) - house centipede
床 (ozu) - bed
家 (koto) - house; home
宮 (kumi) - palace
王宮 (hōkung) - imperial palace
村 (palga) - village; hamlet; small rural settlement
鎭 (koto) - town; village
鎭根 (kotobu) - town; small urban settlement
市根 (diyuhu) - city; large urban settlement
城 (kwiba) - fortress; fortified settlement; city; castle
畕 (tere) - edge; boundary; border; peripheral territory
囯 (maga) - country, state
囯 (kukko) - country, state; kingdom
王囯 (hōgukko) - kingdom
帝囯 (tēgukko) - empire
南囯 (namgukko) - southern country, southern countries [can also refer to countries perceived as being "southern" even if they're not in the south]
社會 (jakwai) - society
旗 (baraja) - flag; banner
囯旗 (kukki) - national flag
族旗 (sūbaraja) - family flag
王族旗 (hōzūbaraja) - royal standard
社會主義 (jakwaijuge) - socialism
民主 (minju) - democracy
專制 (chonjē) - autocracy, despotism; dictatorship
友 (yordu) - friend
嬉 (yuri) - happiness, gladness, merriness
幸 (hagi) - happiness; good luck, good fortune
良動 (shengeme) - good deed; act of kindness; being helpful
祺 (muron) - auspiciousness; prosperity
凶 (yagami) - inauspiciousness; calamity; ominousness
吉兆 (harayeru) - good omen
凶兆 (nagayeru) - bad omen
惡 (yagi) - evil; malice
根 (hulu) - root; foundation; base
中 (incho) - centre, middle, inside
派 (harga) - group, faction [political]
繇 (huso) - reason
恥 (kwacha) - shame
性交 (shenkō) - sexual intercourse
願 (karma) - desire, wish
欲 (karma) - desire; lust
望 (here) - wish, desire; hope; gaze [from afar]
花 (chichuri) - flower
花 (uro) - flower
華 (chichuri) - blossom; flower
美紅花 (uchūbuluro) - rose [lit. beautiful red flower]
薔花 (rōzuro) - rose flower
菊花 (kuguro) - chrysanthemum flower
莉花 (riluro) - jasmine flower
舞 (igi) - dance
踴 (nura) - joyful dance with singing
舞動 (igime) - dance; dancing
踴動 (nurama) - joyful dance with singing; dancing and singing
饗 (hanga) - feast, banquet, buffet
餼 (takkatsu) - sacrificial offering [anything, but often food]
世界 (shigai) - world
下界 (algende) - netherworld; hell
上界 (nungende) - aetherworld; heaven
歷史 (lecchi) - history
現狀 (henjang) - status quo; as things are
況 (sini) - state, condition
旅 (kulgoma) - trip, journey, travel
訪動 (sogoma) - visit, visitation
訪問 (sogoma) - visit, visitation
訪問 (pōmun) - visit, visitation
囯事訪問 (mātasogoma) - state visit
囯事訪問 (kujipōmun) - state visit
鞍 (nerge) - saddle
馬鞍 (emmel) - saddle
輿 (tergo) - palanquin, litter, cacolet
車 (cleya) - chariot
蠟燭 (lōchokko) - candle
錘 (nūja) - hammer
太錘 (ennūja) - large hammer
錘子 (nūjuchu) - small hammer
束 (chugu) - bundle
繩 (sibike) - rope, cord
禮繩 (sidi) - rope used in rituals
禮繩動 (sidime) - ritual bondage
禮繩人 (siditun) - a person in ritual bondage
禮繩所 (siditu) - place for ritual bondage
賢人 (gintun) - sage; a person who is virtuous, wise, dedicated to something, worthy of something, etc.
庶人 (kocchō) - common people; commoner
俗人 (zōnin) - layperson; worldling; vulgar person
瘋人 (dulugoi) - insane or eccentric person; nonconformist; weirdo
少 (nori) - youth
老 (oni) - old age
新 (kwozoma) - newness; freshness [of things]
鮮 (seneme) - freshness [of food]
靚 (urgubu) - handsomeness; good looks [of a man]
媄 (ningubu) - beauty; good looks [of a woman]
美女 (gūninge) - beautiful woman; beauty
美女 (minebe) - beautiful woman; beauty
美男 (guburu) - handsome man; hunk
美男 (minam) - handsome man; hunk
可愛女 (keoninge) - cute girl
可愛男 (keburu) - cute boy
男演人 (unnubunji) - actor
女演人 (ninubunji) - actress
頭 (penge) - head
目 (silem) - eye
眉 (sorum) - eyebrow
睫 (silmappa) - eyelash
眥 (silmezhure) - corner of the eye
黛 (īzorum) - women's eyebrows; women's black eyebrows and eyelashes
目捉 (silbeyomo) - eye-catchingness; attention-grabbingness
鼻 (nere) - nose
鼻水 (kōmul) - nasal mucus, snot
口 (suo) - mouth
脣 (shulo) - lip
歯 (pingi) - tooth
歯刷 (pīboshiya) - toothbrush
唾 (silgi) - saliva, spit
吐 (koso) - vomit
猿轡 (sūgosha) - gag
瘡 (kubo) - boil; blister; scab; pimple
疽 (pungu) - ulcer; carbuncle; abscess; gangrene; tumour
毒 (kwishe) - poison; venom; toxin
泥 (buzo) - mud
穢 (kiri) - dirt, filth
屎 (hakka) - faeces, excrement
屍 (kalam) - corpse, cadaver, dead body
墓 (mul) - grave, tomb
墓場 (mulba) - graveyard, cemetery
壙 (hagasa) - burial ground
紙 (chogu) - paper
紙 (kete) - paper
紗 (sha) - gauze; muslin
紈 (guban) - white silk; light-coloured silk; fine silk [of any colour]
緋 (pulu) - scarlet silk
絳 (kurūzu) - crimson silk
緅 (suru) - purple silk
服 (puku) - clothes; clothing
服 (bugu) - clothes; clothing [may be used more commonly to refer to Chinese-style clothes]
衣裳 (uzo) - clothes; clothing [may be used more commonly to refer to Chinese-style clothes]
褲 (umi) - pants, trousers
裙 (gulun) - skirt
裳 (dan) - skirt [esp. Chinese-style]
幨 (chobo) - overcoat; coat; jacket
身裙 (hingulun) - dress; gown
全身裙 (zonkingulun) - dress; gown; robe [any garment that covers the entire body]
衵 (kodo) - women's undergarments; undershirt and underskirt
內褲 (injumi) - underwear; briefs; panties
男內褲 (urinjumi) - men's underwear; briefs
女內褲 (ninjumi) - women's underwear; panties
碧龍戰士 (shōmrōjenji) - a kind of warrior; raiders who strike during the night [lit. blue-green dragon warrior]
紅龍戰士 (pulumrōjenji) - a kind of warrior; raiders who strike during the day [lit. red dragon warrior]
球 (pugel) - sphere, orb, ball, globe [orig. "circle"; orthographically repurposed to fit the change in meaning]
圓 (kere) - circle; ring
囘 (kere) - circle; ring; round; rotation
〇 (bōl) - circle; sphere [neologism for both senses; originally the suffixed form of 球 (pugel), orthographically repurposed]
珍珠 (chinchu) - pearl
蚌 (boruga) - oyster
竿 (sōga) - pole, rod, stick
畜竿 (kwessōga) - herding stick
轌 (sugol) - sleigh, sled
他面 (telbe) - other side; opposite side
他面 (tamen) - other side; opposite side
列 (kerde) - order; sequence
可愛 (keo) - cute thing
可愛動 (keoma) - cute behaviour; acting cute; being cute; cuteness
可愛欲 (keogarma) - obsession with being cute; cuteness fetish [used by/of women it usually refers to the former, by/of men the latter, but this isn't absolute]
足欲 (yalgarma) - foot fetish
足摩 (yalgwaja) - footjob
屍欲 (kalmagarma) - necrophilia; sexual attraction to corpses
屍姦 (kalbamolma) - necrophilia; sex with a corpse
映畫 (yengō) - film, movie
映畫集中 (yengōdogo) - film premiere
總統 (tsūtō) - president
王 (honga) - king
皇帝 (gubōtō) - emperor of China
天皇 (tenhō) - emperor of Japan
韓王 (nimgum) - king of Korea
大臣 (daijin) - minister
錢 (zen) - money
笄 (pinne) - hairpin
景色 (kenshiki) - landscape; scenery
名 (nimu) - name [irregular]
指 (chibu) - finger
食指 (shōzo) - index finger
中指 (inchū) - middle finger
名無指 (nintonchū) - ring finger
小指 (tsomu) - little finger
單位 (shore) - unit of measure
個 (kumo) - piece, part
理由 (jubu) - reason; motive
責任 (chekinim) - responsibility; duty; obligation; liability
忘 (unki) - forgetfulness
洗 (poshi) - cleanliness
洗具 (poshiya) - any kind of cleaning implement
餘波 (karazara) - aftermath; aftereffect
ADJECTIVES
大 (ene) - big, large
小 (choro) - small, little
高 (korgo) - high; tall
輕 (kepe) - light [of weight]
廓 (kile) - broad; wide; expansive
厚 (chugu) - thick; voluptuous, curvy [of a woman]; muscular, beefy [of a man]
薄 (kwege) - thin; skinny, lean, slim [of a person]
美 (uchuku) - beautiful
靚的 (urgubuda) - handsome; good-looking [of a man]
媄的 (ningubuda) - beautiful; good-looking [of a woman]
嬛 (sio) - cute, pretty; young and graceful
可愛 (kebe) - cute, adorable, sweet
目捉的 (silbeyomoda) - eye-catching, attention-grabbing
良 (sheng) - good; kind, nice; beneficial
健 (sheng) - healthy
嬉 (yuru) - happy, glad, merry
幸 (haga) - happy; lucky, fortunate
惡 (ado) - evil; malicious
少 (noyo) - young
老 (ono) - old [of a person or animal]
新 (kwozo) - new; fresh [of things]
鮮 (sene) - fresh [of food]
熱 (pego) - hot
暑 (pego) - hot [of weather]
冷 (chiro) - cold
寒 (chiro) - cold [of weather]
温 (rego) - warm
暖 (rego) - warm [of weather]
冽 (chimo) - cool
涼 (chimo) - cool [of weather]
朱 (churu) - dark red; maroon; cinnabar; claret; blood red
紅 (pulu) - red [in general]; medium red; scarlet; crimson; vermillion
赤 (pulu) - red [in general]; medium red; scarlet; crimson; vermillion
纁 (hingal) - light red; orange; pink; amaranth; sky orange
韞 (shara) - bright orange; saffron; candy apple red
黃 (sirē) - yellow; beige; cream-coloured; pale; blonde
緋 (pulu) - scarlet; blushing; lively, energetic; lewd; shameful
絳 (kurūzu) - crimson; regnal; dignified
紫 (libu) - purple; violet; lavender; amethyst
緅 (suru) - dark purple; very dark red
紺 (kumzu) - dark purple; dark violet; dark blue
靑 (kogōn) - dark blue-green; teal; cerulean; sapphire; jungle green
碧 (shongōn) - blue-green [in general]; medium blue-green; jade; sea green
翠 (shono) - light blue-green; cyan; turquoise; emerald; sky blue
鬒 (iclin) - dark yellow-green; dark forest green; olive; near-black
綠 (usho) - yellow-green [in general]; medium green; forest green
艵 (hiji) - light yellow-green; chartreuse; lime; spring bud
黑 (koru) - black
白 (siri) - white
光 (kwalga) - white; light; bright; shining; gleaming; sparkling
黑黑 (kogoru) - very deep black
白白 (siziri) - very bright white
水朋的 (ubissuida) - blue and white/yellow; alluring but elusive; attractive but "fake"; deceptive [usually sexually and/or romantically]
旭的 (higarda) - rising [of the sun]; emerging [of a positive thing]; up-and-coming [of an entertainer, etc.]
祺 (omrada) - auspicious; prosperous
惡 (yaga) - evil; bad; wicked; malicious
聖 (bogo) - sacred, holy
重要 (lumuki) - important
忘 (unkuda) - forgetful
充 (chalga) - full
饒 (kogo) - abundant, plentiful, copious
瑳 (tsahara) - lustrous, shining, brilliant [of a gem or something likened to a gem either literally or figuratively]
饞 (bisebul) - gluttonous, ravenous; overindulgent; insatiable
饞的 (bisebida) - gluttonous, ravenous; overindulgent; hungry
暴 (bō) - violent; cruel; brutal; tyrannical; fierce; extreme
憃 (uko) - stupid, foolish
瘋 (dulu) - insane; eccentric; nonconformist; strange [of a person]
每 (yo) - every, each
每日 (yogile) - every day, all days
充日 (chelgile) - lasting all day, lasting the whole day
停弗 (kulutur) - incessant, ceaseless, pauseless
男 (uru) - male
女 (ninge) - female
㚻 (temol) - intersex; non-binary [of gender]
賢 (gina) - worthy; virtuous; wise [of a person]
充賢 (chelgina) - impeccable; without fault [of a person]
洗 (poshu) - clean
清 (sio) - clean, pure; clear
濕 (sizi) - wet, moist, damp
工口 (ero) - erotic; lewd
森森 (kuruguru) - dense, lush, thriving [of forest, trees, etc.]
狼様 (berigete) - wolflike; silent/invisible and devastating
狼像 (berigete) - wolflike; big and hairy; scary-looking
馬様 (morugoto) - horselike; fast and reliable; endurant
馬像 (morugoto) - horselike; elegant with fine hair [fig. of a person]
左派 (kwasabarga) - left-wing
右派 (ogobarga) - right-wing
名無 (nimungtom) - nameless; anonymous
名無 (nintom) - nameless; anonymous [informal]
漸 (kumogu) - gradual
近 (budo) - soon; upcoming; approaching
ADVERBS
前在 (ezene) - in front
後在 (takana) - behind
前時 (bajanne) - early
後時 (nejenne) - late
上 (ulu) - up
下 (ala) - down
又 (taka) - again
或成 (arōru) - or else, otherwise; then; or consequently
乃 (o) - then
乃 (kwa) - then [expresses surprise, admiration, shock, etc.]
乃成 (neki) - then; and then; consequently
乃然 (tagan) - so; therefore; thus; as such
為 (jubun) - so that; in order to; for the sake of
今 (nim) - now
既 (niki) - already
近 (budo) - soon
何然 (nan) - what; how; such; so
真在 (ūrona) - actually, really, truthfully, truly, in fact
繇从 (husoto) - because; because of
每 (yo/yog-) - every, each [prefix]
每日時 (yogilenne) - daily, every day
充日時 (chelgilenne) - all day, for the whole day
每週時 (yonahīnna) - weekly, every week
每日 (moinitti) - daily, every day
亙 (cluku) - continuous; constant
漸時 (kumogunna) - gradually
陡様然 (genketen) - suddenly, unexpectedly, abruptly
暴然 (bōnan) - violently; cruelly; brutally; tyrannically; fiercely; extremely
手以 (keten) - by hand, manually
停弗然 (kulutunnan) - without stopping; incessantly; without pause; without a break
狼様然 (berigeten) - like a wolf; silently/invisibly and devastatingly
馬様然 (morugoton) - like a horse; quickly and reliably; durably
水朋然 (ubissuinan) - like the moon reflected in water; deceptively [usually sexually and/or romantically]
可愛然 (keben) - cutely
更 (lō) - more
至 (meten) - at least; even
少然 (noyon) - youthfully
老然 (onon) - wisely
新然 (kwozon) - newly; freshly; recently [of things]
鮮然 (senen) - freshly [of food]
凋凋 (kwonko-bonko) - to oblivion; like beating a dead horse
CONJUNCTIONS
及 (o) - and
及 (kwa) - and [expresses surprise, eg. "you AND ME!?"]
或 (aru) - or
虽 (hu) - but; although, even though
卻 (uhu) - however, yet, nonetheless; but
若 (gene) - if; assuming; supposing
若非 (genbo) - if not; unless; if there is no; if not for
偌 (ka) - that [following a verb, eg. "I think (that) you ate too much"]
PARTICLES
么 (ka/ke/ke/ko/ko) - interrogative marker [emphatic]
把 (-ppa/ppe/ppe/ppa/ppa) - topic marker ~ focus particle [after vowels]
把 (-appa/eppe/ippe/oppa/uppa) - topic marker ~ focus particle [after consonants]
介 (-ba) - topic marker [more similar to Japanese は in its range than the above]
㸦 (-ya/ye/ye/ya/ya) - agentive particle ~ secondary subject marker [emphatic; after /m ŋ/ and /mV nV ŋgV/; rarely necessary]
㸦 (-ga/ge/ge/ga/ga) - agentive particle ~ secondary subject marker [emphatic; after /n r l/; rarely necessary]
㸦 (-nga/nge/nge/nga/nga) - agentive particle ~ secondary subject marker [emphatic; elsewhere; rarely necessary]
丌 (-ge/gi/gi/ge/gi) - third-person possessive [emphatic]
乍 (-ja) - particle expressing suddenness
哈 (ta) - quotation particle
The difference between the interrogative suffix 吗 and 么 is that the latter emphasises the question; for example:
食吗? (sebumo?) - are you going to eat?
食么? (sebu ko?) - hey, are you going to eat?
While 吗 does not have any notable intonational difference, 么 tends to have a rising or dipping pitch and may be elongated; it nonetheless has a short vowel, and elongating it beyond the length of long vowels with too exaggerated a change in pitch is considered annoying. That's not to say 吗 can't have a rising pitch, too, but it's equally common for it to be accentually consistent.
The third-person emphatic possessive 丌:
友丌 (yordu-gi) - HIS friend
The difference between the agentive case and emphatic agentive particle is as follows:
貓补鳥殺了 (mayan lundo kwezede) - the cat killed the bird
貓㸦鳥殺了 (maya-nga lundo kwezede) - it was the cat that killed the bird
Although the agentive would generally not be marked at all, sometimes it is considered better to do so for clarity, usually in complex sentences. An important thing to note is that it's (usually) only used when there is an action affecting something else (with some possible exceptions especially in formal writing), while the emphatic agentive particle can be used for emphasis in any kind of sentence.
把 puts the focus on whatever comes before it with an implication of importance and may be honorific in some contexts (or informal in others), while 介 is more neutral overall without any inherent implications... but it might get a bit muddy sometimes.
POSTPOSITIONS
前時 (bajanne) - before; earlier than
後時 (nejenne) - after; later than
PREFIXES
無 (a/e/e/e/a) - non-, not
無 (a/e/e/e/a) - non-, not [induces voicing in /p t k/]
無 (an/en/en/en/an) - non-, not [before /n d g z d͡z d͡ʒ/]
無 (an/en/en/en/an) - non-, not [before vowels]
SUFFIXES
歲 (ozē) - -year-old [after a consonant]
歲 (zē) - -year-old [after a vowel]
無 (gtam/gtem/gtem/gtom/gtom) - -less [after /n/] - turns the /n/ into an /ŋ/
無 (attam/ettem/ittem/attom/uttom) - -less [after other consonants; monosyllabic roots]
無 (tam/tem/tem/tom/tom) - -less [after other consonants; polysyllabic roots]
無 (ttam/ttem) - -less [after a vowel]
者 (wa) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [after /ru/; replaces the last vowel]
者 (ya/ye) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [after /mV nV pV bV kV gV/ in polysyllabic roots; replaces the last vowel]
者 (ccha/cche) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [after /tV/; replaces the last syllable]
者 (jja/jje) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [after /dV/; replaces the last syllable]
者 (ya/ye) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [elsewhere]
VERBS
是 (bolo) - to be; become [irregular]
有 (oru) - to exist [irregular]
有 (i) - to have, own, possess [irregular]
無 (obu) to not have, own, possess [irregular]
有始 (orulga) - to come into existence, come to be; form; take form
有始 (ilge) - to acquire, gain; develop
造 (meke) - to make, create; build [irregular]
作 (teke) - to do [irregular]
見 (kwana) - to see; view; look at
集中 (togo) - to focus
聞 (kulu) - to hear
聞匉 (kulo) - to be heard
響 (kolgo) - to make a sound; echo; reverberate
話 (yutto) - to say; speak, talk; talk about
問 (soro) - to ask
生 (ele) - to live; to be alive
死 (kolo) - to die
殺 (kweze) - to kill
埋 (moldu) - to bury
與 (anda) - to give
贈 (katsu) - to give, offer [something precious]
膳 (ulo) - to give food; feed [a person]
含 (bumite) - to hold in the mouth
華 (hudo) - to bloom, blossom [often literally, eg. with the noun 花/華 (chichuri)]
華 (hutto) - to bloom, blossom [often literally, eg. with the noun 花/華 (chichuri); emphatic, eg. "blooming very much" or "all blooming"]
華 (chichuru) - to bloom, blossom [literally or figuratively]
植 (nara) - to plant; to cultivate
種 (moko) - to sow
穫 (udo) - to harvest
培 (huro) - to cultivate; nurture; foster; maintain
補修 (poshū) - to repair; renovate; restore; maintain
讓 (sagatta) - to allow, permit, let
願 (karma) - to desire, wish, want
欲 (karma) - to desire; lust after
望 (here) - to wish, desire; hope; gaze [from afar]
信 (ehe) - to believe
言 (mono) - to say
叫 (muro) - to shout, scream, yell
呱 (kwā) - to cry, scream, wail [of a baby]
食 (sebu) - to eat
饞 (bisebu) - to overeat; be gluttonous
咀 (kibo) - to chew; gnaw
嚥 (numu) - to swallow
饒 (kogomu) - to be abundant, plentiful, copious
饗 (hanga) - to host a feast, banquet, buffet
秣 (urdu) - to feed [a horse]
餵 (ordo) - to feed [anything]
啂 (imi) - to suck [on a nipple]
吮 (imi) - to suck [on anything]
唾 (silgi) - to spit
吐 (koso) - to vomit
昇 (nobo) - to rise; ascend
沈 (otsu) - to fall; descend
登 (kao) - to climb
從 (taga) - to follow
恐 (pele) - to be afraid; fear
目捉 (silbeyomo) - to attract attention; draw the eyes
唆 (ile) - to seduce; tempt; entice; charm; attract [not necessarily with negative implications]
眽 (kwana) - to ogle; look at; stare at; spy on
摸 (yomo) - to grope, fondle
觸 (koho) - to touch
摩 (kwaja) - to rub
打 (chaba) - to hit, punch, beat; chop
複 (takana) - to repeat
停 (kulu) - to stop
完 (kwidu) - to end; to be finished
忘 (unko) - to forget [anything; no implications]
忘凶 (muku) - to forget [something one does not want to forget]
忘可 (muki) - to forget [something one wants to forget]
忘叵 (mukonu) - to be unable to forget [of anything; no implications]
忘匉 (moku) - to be forgotten [of anything; no implications]
忘凶匉 (moku) - to be forgotten [of something one does not want to forget]
忘可匉 (moki) - to be forgotten [something one wants to forget]
忘叵匉 (mokonu) - to be unforgettable [of anything; no implications]
凋 (kwonko) - to fade away
讚 (ecchi) - to praise
剝 (kwakka) - to peel; skin; strip
隔 (tselte) - to separate
洗 (poshu) - to clean
閉 (sulgo) - to close, shut
隠 (kecche) - to hide, stash [transitive]
閟 (kecche) - to hide, stash [transitive, can be figuratively; something precious, illegal, etc.]
充 (chalga) - to fill
旅 (kulgo) - to travel
逃 (urgo) - to flee, escape, run away
至 (yaga) - to reach, arrive; come; result in
入 (peri) - to enter; come inside
會 (hanga) - to meet, gather, congregate
訪 (sogo) - to visit
闖 (puccho) - to burst in; charge in; break through; to raid a settlement [usually on horseback]
襲闖 (salbuccho) - to raid a settlement [usually on horseback]; expand territory by raids; capture prisoners/slaves
襲闖 (lūbuccho) - to raid a settlement [usually on horseback]; expand territory by raids; impose one's will on others
暴 (bukku) - to expose, reveal, show [something unpleasant]
待 (ojo) - to wait
乘 (puno) - to ride; mount
戰 (shudo) - to fight
緋 (pulu) - to blush
恥 (kwacha) - to be ashamed
緋恥 (pulgwacha) - to be deeply ashamed
輝 (koga) - to shine, sparkle, radiate; be lustrous
雪 (kuzu) - to snow
解 (shushu) - to thaw
濕 (sizi) - to become wet, moist, damp
燒 (deke) - to burn [transitive]
腐 (sei) - to rot; decay; spoil; mould [of flesh, fruits, etc.]
朽 (sei) - to rot; decay [of wood]
產 (umu) - to give birth
產 (umuna) - to give birth; breed; be fertile
孳 (bumuna) - to breed in large numbers; have many children; multiply; be prolific, productive [figuratively]
習 (tebe) - to flap [wings]; flutter; fly [of a bird]
飛 (hile) - to fly [of anything, incl. birds]
舞 (igi) - to dance
踴 (nura) - to dance joyfully while singing
高準 (ippi) - to rise [of water]
喵 (maya) - to meow
縛 (sibi) - to tie up; bind; restrain [with rope, etc.]
捆 (siti) - to tie up; bundle together
婚 (nai) - to marry; get married
男婚 (urugani) - to marry a man
女婚 (ningani) - to marry a woman
恥 (kwacha) - to shame, humiliate
破 (molu) - to break; destroy; ruin; destabilise; bring down
姦 (molu) - to violate; abuse; rape
屍姦 (kalbamolu) - to have sex with a corpse
碎 (muro) - to shatter, crumble, break apart, fall apart
碎 (chenke) - to break with _ [an object]
轢 (chenke) - to run over with _ [a vehicle]
拈 (chibu) - to pinch
摘 (tebi) - to pluck, pick [flowers, fruits, leaves, etc.]
機能 (kinē) - to function, work
服 (puku) - to wear, dress [intransitive]
衣 (putto) - to dress, clothe [transitive]
NUMERALS
零 (lenge) - zero
一 (itti) - one
二 (katta) - two
三 (kolom) - three
四 (nile) - four
五 (udo) - five
六 (kudo) - six
七 (senke) - seven
八 (yala) - eight
九 (kegen) - nine
十 (chobo) - ten
些 (kweshe) - a couple, a few, some
十一 (chōyutti) - eleven
十二 (chōgatta) - twelve
十三 (chōgolom) - thirteen
十四 (chōnile) - fourteen
十五 (chōbudo) - fifteen
十六 (chōgudo) - sixteen
十七 (chōzenke) - seventeen
十八 (chōyala) - eighteen
十九 (chōkken) - nineteen
二十 (kacchobo) - twenty
三十 (kolchobo) - thirty
四十 (nilchobo) - forty
五十 (ucchobo) - fifty
六十 (kucchobo) - sixty
七十 (senchobo) - seventy
八十 (yalchobo) - eighty
九十 (kēchobo) - ninety
些十 (kwecchobo) - a couple dozen, some dozens
二十一 (kacchōyutti) - twenty-one
二十二 (kacchōgatta) - twenty-two
二十三 (kacchōgolom) - twenty-three
二十四 (kacchōnile) - twenty-four
二十五 (kacchōbudo) - twenty-five
二十六 (kacchōgudo) - twenty-six
二十七 (kacchōzenke) - twenty-seven
二十八 (kacchōyala) - twenty-eight
二十九 (kacchōkken) - twenty-nine
百 (nama) - hundred
一百 (innama) - one hundred
二百 (kannama) - two hundred
三百 (konnomo) - three hundred
四百 (ninnama) - four hundred
五百 (unnomo) - five hundred
六百 (kunnomo) - six hundred
七百 (sennama) - seven hundred
八百 (yannama) - eight hundred
九百 (kennama) - nine hundred
些百 (kwennama) - a couple hundred, some hundreds
千 (minga) - thousand; a lot
一千 (imminge) - one thousand
二千 (kamminga) - two thousand
三千 (kolminga) - three thousand
四千 (nilminge) - four thousand
五千 (umminga) - five thousand
六千 (kumminga) - six thousand
七千 (semminge) - seven thousand
八千 (yalminga) - eight thousand
九千 (kēminge) - nine thousand
些千 (kwemminge) - a couple thousand, some thousands
万 (miban) - ten thousand; myriad; a lot
一万 (immōn) - ten thousand
二万 (kammōn) - twenty thousand
三万 (kolmōn) - thirty thousand
四万 (nilmōn) - forty thousand
五万 (ummōn) - fifty thousand
六万 (kummōn) - sixty thousand
七万 (semmōn) - seventy thousand
八万 (yalmōn) - eighty thousand
九万 (kēmōn) - ninety thousand
些万 (kwemmōn) - a couple ten thousand, some ten thousands
百万 (nammōn) - million; a vast amount
一百万 (innammōn) - one million
二百万 (kanammōn) - two million
三百万 (konnommōn) - three million
四百万 (ninnammōn) - four million
五百万 (unnommōn) - five million
六百万 (kunnommōn) - six million
七百万 (sennammōn) - seven million
八百万 (yannammōn) - eight million
九百万 (kēnammōn) - nine million
些百万 (kwennammōn) - a couple million, some millions
千万 (mimmōn) - ten million; a vast amount
一千万 (immimmōn) - ten million
二千万 (kamimmōn) - twenty million
三千万 (kolmimmōn) - thirty million
四千万 (nilmimmōn) - forty million
五千万 (ummimmōn) - fifty million
六千万 (kummimmōn) - sixty million
七千万 (semmimmōn) - seventy million
八千万 (yalmimmōn) - eighty million
九千万 (kēmimmōn) - ninety million
些千万 (kwemmimmōn) - a dozen million, some dozen millions
亿 (yekki) - hundred million; incomprehensibly large amount
一亿 (iyekki) - one hundred million
二亿 (kayekki) - two hundred million
三亿 (koyekki) - three hundred million
四亿 (niyekki) - four hundred million
五亿 (uyekki) - five hundred million
六亿 (kuyekki) - six hundred million
七亿 (seyekki) - seven hundred million
八亿 (yayekki) - eight hundred million
九亿 (kēyekki) - nine hundred million
些亿 (kweyekki) - a couple hundred million, some hundred millions
CLASSIFIERS
呵 (-ga/ge) - general
句 (-go) - words, sentences, etc.
岸 (-n) - general [with hundreds - thousands]
干 (-gan/gen) - general [with tens of thousands - millions]
干 (-n) - general [with hundreds of millions]
回 (-kē) - times, occurrences
回 (-gē) - times, occurrences (preceded by /k tt kk/)
元 (-ba/be) - people
君 (-ba/be) - people
匹 (-bu) - horses and other large animals with tails
頭 (-gu) - cattle and other large animals [after vowels]
頭 (-ū) - cattle and other large animals [after consonants]
PROPER NOUNS
挧熕 (Ulduga) - Ulduga [endonym for conpeople]
挧熕話 (Ulduga kele) - Ulduga language [endonym for the conpeople's language]
挧熕囯 (Uldugamā) - Ulduga country [country of conpeople]
奔餮胡 (Pulduga) - Pulduga [exonym for conpeople; derogatory, lit. "running gluttonous barbarians"]
賁鐵瑚 (Pulduga) - Pulduga [exonym for conpeople; new orthography, lit. "brave iron people of virtue"]
勛仙 (Hunzen) - Hun; Huns [conpeople; folk endonym, lit. "meritious immortal"]
勛戎 (Hunnū) - Hun; Huns [as allies]
勛話 (Hun kele) - Hunnic language [the language of allies]
匈奴 (Honna) - Hun; Huns [as enemies in the northwest]
匈話 (Hon kele) - Hunnic language [the language of northwestern enemies]
中囯 (Chūgukko) - China
朝鮮 (Chōshen) - Korea
日本 (Nippon) - Japan
俄羅斯 (Orosu) - Russia
The idea was originally to make an Uralic conlang set on a fictional island near Japan and with heavy influence from Japanese, but then I decided to set it in China instead while still having Japanese influences. As I was working on it, it gradually became more and more Altaic so I decided it's better anyway to make it a vaguely Ural-Altaic language whose exact relationship is unclear. There are also some minor similarities to Yeniseian and Yukaghir at least in vocabulary, too, intended to be a "who knows if they're coincidental or not?" type of a thing. So, I guess it could be called "Para-Ural-Altaic" or something, but considering Altaic is (probably) not even a language family but a sprachbund... well, "Ural-Altaic" works best, I think.
It's admittedly a pretty bland conlang tbh, at least so far there aren't any cool semantic shifts or anything and its grammar is really simple, but well.
Conculture/althistory stuff in this post.
Example sentences in this post.
PHONOLOGY
/m n ŋ/ <m n ng>
/p b t d k g (ʔ)/ <p b t d k g '>
/kʷ (gʷ)/ <kw gw>
/t͡s (d͡z) t͡ʃ d͡ʒ/ <ts dz ch j>
/s z ʃ (ʒ)/ <s z sh zh>
/j w h/ <y w h>
/r l/ <r l>
/t͡ɬ/ <cl>
/ɑ e i o u/ <a e i o u>
/ɑː eː iː oː uː/ <ā ē ī ō ū>
/ʔ/ only comes about due to syllable breaks and may be dropped, in which case usually a difference in pitch occurs
/gʷ ʒ/ only come about due to voicing assimilation, so they might not count as full phonemes.
The distinction between /d͡ʒ/ and /ʒ/ is rarely made, and in practice both are [d͡ʒ~ʒ] in free variation.
The distinction between /d͡z/ and /z/ is rarely made, the former only coming about due to voicing assimilation of /t͡ɬ/ and commonly merging with /z/.
Both of the above, however, are considered distinct in the standard language and educated speakers may preserve the distinctions in loanwords.
All consonants are palatalised to some degree before /i/.
In standard speech, before /e/ only /k g/ are palatalised; the palatalisation ranges from minimal to as prominent as before /i/. In various dialects not strictly confined to any single part of the dialect continuum, various other consonants (up to all of them) can be palatalised very strongly before both /e i/; dialects that palatalise /m p b/ before /e/ universally also palatalise /t d/, while /n/ is usually only palatalised in dialects that also palatalise /r l/.
Some northeastern dialects merge /t͡s d͡z s z/ with /t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ ʒ/ before /e i/, while southeastern dialects merge them only before /i/; most dialects don't merge them even before /i/, maintaining the distinction as /t͡s d͡z s z/ [t̻͡s̪ʲ d̻͡z̪ʲ s̪ʲ z̪ʲ] and /t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ ʒ/ [t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ɕ ʑ]. Western dialects may have [t͡ʂ d͡ʐ ʂ ʐ] before back vowels and [t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ɕ ʑ] before front vowels, or in some far northwestern dialects where the distinction has become one of aspiration, [t͡ʂʰ t͡ʂ] and [t͡ɕʰ t͡ɕ]. In standard speech, /t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ ʒ/ are [t͡ʃ~t͡ɕ d͡ʒ~d͡ʑ ʃ~ɕ ʒ~ʑ] regardless of environment, although [t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ɕ ʑ] are (almost) universal before /i/.
/p t k t͡s t͡ʃ/ tend to be lightly aspirated, while /kʷ t͡ɬ/ tend to be unaspirated. In certain northern dialects, aspiration can be strong and apply to all voiceless plosives; in some far northern dialects the codification of aspiration can be so pervasive that voiced plosives may be pronounced as voiceless. In the standard language, the level of aspiration does not matter but pronouncing voiced plosives as voiceless is considered a speech impediment.
/k/ is usually [k̠~q] before /ɑ o/ and sometimes before /u/, while /kʷ/ tends to be [kʷ~k̠ʷ]
Usually, /g/ is [ɣ~ɣ̠~ʁ] between back vowels. This is why the language and people's endonym is sometimes transliterated eg. <Uldugha> rather than <Ulduga> in some languages, but the official romanisation is <Ulduga>.
/w/ can be [w~ʋˠ~ʋ~β̞ˠ~β̞], and when palatalised it usually becomes [ʋʲ~β̞ʲ~vʲ~βʲ].
Intervocalically, /z/ can be pronounced as a dental fricative [ð]; it may even approach a pre-alveolar approximant [ɹ̟]. Word-initially and after nasals, it is most often an affricate [d͡z].
/n t d t͡s d͡z s l t͡ɬ/ can be dental [n̪ t̪ d̪ t̻͡s̪ d̻͡z̪ s̪ l̪ t̻͡ɬ̪] or alveolar [n t d t͡s d͡z s l t͡ɬ] in free variation, even inconsistently
The allophones of /h/ in standard speech are:
[x̠~χ~χˤ] before /ɑ/
[h~hˠ~x] before /e/
[ç~xʲ~hʲ] before /i/
[x̠~χ~χˤ] before /o/
[x~x̠~χ] before /u/
/r l/ are most commonly realised as:
[r l] word-initially
[ɾ ɮ] intervocalically
[r̝ ɮ] before voiced consonants
[r̝̊ ɬ] before voiceless consonants
[ɾ l] after consonants
[ɾ̞̊ ɬ] word-finally
However, in southern dialects, they tend to be [r~ɾ l~ɺ] in all environments, and in far southeastern dialects they often even merge, retaining only allophonic distinction of [ɾ] in syllable onsent and [l] in coda. In the standard language, it's considered acceptable to use the above allophones or [r~ɾ l] everywhere, but [ɺ] for /l/ is considered a speech impediment. Western dialects tend to have [ɹ~ɹ̠~ɻ] for /r/ at least in coda, and in far southwestern dialects even [ɻ̝~ʐ] is possible; in the standard language, coda [ɹ~ɹ̠] is considered acceptable, but [ɻ~ɻ̝~ʐ] is considered a speech impediment.
Intervocalically, the distinction between /ng/ and /ŋ/ is typically lost even in standard speech, both being pronounced [ŋ~ŋˑ~ŋː] in free variation.
/ɑ/ can be [ɐ~a~æ] when syllables surrounding it have front vowels. Most commonly, though, it's [ɑ~a̠~ɐ̠].
/i/ can be [ɨ~ɨ̞~ɯ̽] when syllables surrounding it have back vowels. Most commonly, though, it's [i~ɪ].
/e/ can be [ə~ɜ~ɛ] when syllables surrounding it have back vowels, or when the only vowel in a word is /e/. Most commonly, though, it's [e̞~ə̟].
/o/ can be [ɞ~ɵ̞] when syllables surrounding it have front vowels. Most commonly, though, it's [o̞~ɔ].
/u/ can be [ʏ~ʉ] when syllables surrounding it have front vowels. Most commonly, though, it's [u~ʊ].
Long vowels have no notable quality difference from short vowels, although sometimes they may be less prone to being centralised.
GRAMMAR
The default word order is SOV, so generally speaking marking some cases and using some particles is optional unless other word orders are used or sentences get complex enough to warrant it. The more formal the text or speech, the more redundant it can get.
NOUN DECLENSION
In collective nouns, plurals are usually not written even if pronounced. It's uncommon to use a plural suffix at all, but sometimes they're used.
plural: 多 -tV [after vowels and /n t r l/; optional]
plural: 多 -atV/etV/etV/otV/otV [after consonants; optional]
This suffix is more common than the one below, but has almost as much variation in the possible vowels when added to words that aren't usually pluralised. It does have regular vowels after consonants, but the final vowels can be very unpredictable in the words that have standardised plural forms. Although /ta/ is most common, it's far from universal.
plural: 等 -r(V) [after vowels; optional]
plural: 等 -ar(V)/er(V) [after consonants; optional]
It's rare for this suffix to have a final vowel, but when it does have one, it's often unpredictable and inconsistent even in the speech of the same speaker. In fossilised words with a plural, they're consistent, though, of course.
MONOSYLLABIC ROOTS
nominative: -Ø
accusative: 乎 -bo
accusative: 乎 -mo [if the consonant is /p b/]
genitive: 之 -no
agentive: 补 -n [rarely used in simple sentences]
instrumental: 以 -n
comitative: 与 -na/ne
ornative: 被 -ba/be/be/bo/bo
dative: 向 -nga/nge
dative: 向 -na/ne [if the consonant is /g/]
ablative: 从 -ta/te
locative: 在 -na/ne
temporal: 時 - nna/nne
comparative: 似 - da/de
essive: 況 -nna/nne/nne/nno/nno
abessive: 無 -tara/tere/tiri/toro/toro
abessive: 無 -tala/tele/tili/tolo/tolo [if the consonant is /r/]
POLYSYLLABIC ROOTS
nominative: -Ø
accusative: 乎 -m
genitive: 之 -n
agentive: 补 -n [rarely used in simple sentences]
instrumental: 以 -n
comitative: 与 -n
ornative: 被 -ba/be/be/bo/bo
dative: 向 -ga/ge
dative: 向 -na/ne [if the last consonant is /ŋ g/]
ablative: 从 -ta/te
locative: 在 -na/ne
temporal: 時 - nna/nne
comparative: 似 - da/de
essive: 況 -nna/nne/nne/nno/nno
abessive: 無 -tar/ter/tir/tur/tur
abessive: 無 -tal/tel/til/tul/tul [if the last consonant is /r/]
IMPORTANT NOTE:
If the stem ends in /n r l/, a vowel is added before the 乎, 之, 补, 以, 与, 在, 時 and 況 - the harmonic variants are: a-i-i-u-u
NOTES:
With the default SOV word order, direct objects are usually not marked with the accusative suffix except in very formal writing. With different word orders, it is more common to decline them, but still not necessary because the indirect object is declined. Monosyllabic words may be more likely to be take the accusative suffix even with SOV word order.
貓向家與咔 = 貓向家乎與咔
maya.ga koto anda.kka = maya.ga koto.m anda.kka
cat.DAT home give.IMP = cat.DAT home.ACC give.IMP
"give the cat a home"
The temporal case can be used with any noun, indicating that an action happens when that noun is present, or in the case of nouns referring to events or such, during the event; in the latter case, it can refer to an individual instance, but the more common usage is the former.
IRREGULAR DECLENSION OF '名 (nimu) - name'
nominative: 名 (nimu)
accusative: 名乎 (nim)
genitive: 名之 (nimun)
agentive: 名补 (nimun)
instrumental: 名以 (nimun)
comitative: 名与 (nimun)
ornative: 名被 (nimbe)
dative: 名向 (ninge)
ablative: 名从 (ninde)
locative: 名在 (ninne)
temporal: 名時 (nimune)
comparative: 名似 (nimunde)
abessive: 名無 (nintur)
IRREGULAR DECLENSION OF '人多 (koita) - people'
nominative: 人多 (koita)
accusative: 人多乎 (koito)
genitive: 人多之 (kuton)
agentive: 人多补 (kuton)
instrumental: 人多以 (kuton)
comitative: 人多与 (kuton)
ornative: 人多被 (kutaba)
dative: 人多向 (koida)
ablative: 人多从 (kutte)
locative: 人多在 (koide)
temporal: 人多時 (koide)
comparative: 人多似 (koitte)
essive: 人多況 (kuton)
abessive: 人多無 (kutur)
ADJECTIVE DECLENSION
comparative: 匕 -ba/be
mirative comparative: 比 -mba/mbe
superlative: 最 -mata/mete/mete/moto/moto [after monosyllabic roots]
superlative: 最 -nda/nde/nde/ndo/ndo [after polysyllabic roots]
adverbial: 然 -n
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after monosyllabic roots]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after /m/, which assimilates -> /nn/ or two vowels]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after the abessive suffix /tVr/~/tVl/, which assimilates -> /tVnnan/~/tVnnen/]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after the abessive suffix /tVrV/, which assimilates -> /tVrran/~/tVrren/]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after the abessive suffix /tVlV/, which assimilates -> /tVllan/~/tVllen/]
abessive: 弗 -tar/ter/tir/toro/toro [after monosyllables]
abessive: 弗 -tal/tel/til/tolo/tolo [after monosyllables if the last consonant is /r/]
abessive: 弗 -tar/ter/tir/tur/tur
abessive: 弗 -tal/tel/til/tul/tul [if the last consonant is /r/]
VERB CONJUGATION
negative: 不 na/ne- [before a consonant]
negative: 不 n- [before a vowel]
prohibitive: 勿 ba/bi/bi/bu/bu- [before a consonant]
prohibitive: 勿 ban/bin/bin/bun/bun- [before a vowel]
~stem~
honorific: 卬 -ki- [induces voicing, except in 咔 and 仍了]
conditional: 即 -sha/she/shi/sha/sho-
modal: 応 -lge/lgi/lgi/lge/lgi- [should, must; induces voicing in 可, 仍 and 可了]
passive: 匉 -la/le-
causative: 使 -ta/te/te/ta/to- [induces voicing, except in 咔]
desiderative: 欲 -sō- [induces voicing, except in 咔 and 仍了]
suddenly: 乍 -ja- [induces voicing, except in 咔 and 仍了]
reciprocal: 互 -nama/neme- [induces voicing, except in 咔 and 仍了]
reciprocal: 互 -nam/nem- [if final]
non-past: -Ø
past: 了 -da/de
inchoative: 始 -lga
terminative: 住 -kul
progressive: 延 -dim
habitual: 仍 -taga/tege
habitual: 仍 -daga/dege [after /ttV/]
epistemic 1: 能 -nu/ni [able to]
epistemic 2: 可 -sā/sē [allowed to]
imperative: 咔 -kka/kke
connective: 合 -l [used to join verbs together; if following verb begins with a vowel or /m p b t d k g kʷ t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ t͡ɬ/]
connective: 合 -la/li/li/lu/lu [used to join verbs together; if following verb begins with other consonants]
progressive imperative: 咔延 -kkadim/kkedim [eg. "keep practising!"]
progressive epistemic 1: 能延 -ndim [after short vowels]
progressive epistemic 1: 能延 -nudim/nidim [after long vowels]
progressive epistemic 2: 可延 -sādim/sēdim
inchoative epistemic 1: 能始 -nulga/nilga
inchoative epistemic 1: 可始 -salga/selga
past progressive: 延了 -dinda/dinde
past habitual: 仍了 -tāda/tēde
past epistemic 1: 能了 -nda/nde [was/were able to]
past epistemic 2: 可了 -satta/sette [was/were allowed to]
past reciprocal: 互了 -namida/nemide
interrogative: 吗 -ma/me/me/mo/mo [after a vowel]
interrogative: 吗 -am/em/em/om/om [after a consonant]
adverbial: 然 -n [after a vowel]
adverbial: 然 -nan/nen [after /m/, which assimilates -> /nn/ or two vowels]
The inchoative and terminative can be used on their own to indicate "to start [verb]-ing" and "to stop [verb]-ing" respectively, but can also be combined with other verbal suffixes.
The difference between the negative imperatives is as follows, using the verb 食 (sebu, "to eat") as an example:
不食咔 (nesebukka) = do not eat [medium command; expected to be followed, but implies some choice]
不食応咔 (nesebulgikka) = you should not eat [strong recommendation; expected to be followed, but implies some choice]
勿食 (bisebu) = do not eat [soft command; not necessarily expected to be followed; used sarcastically or playfully, etc.]
勿食応 (bisebulgi) = you definitely should not eat [very strong recommendation; implies that something bad is going to happen if not followed]
勿食咔 (bisebukka) = absolutely do not eat [strong command; expected to be followed, implies consequences for disobediance; used by parents, etc.]
勿食応咔 (bisebulgikka) = you must absolutely not eat [very strong command; implies severe punishment for disobediance; used in military, etc.]
The pronunciation of a vowel in the connective 合 (-la/li/li/lu/lu) suffix is mostly restricted to formal speech, while in informal speech it's almost universally just an /l/. One exception is if consonant clusters considered difficult would arise, the most common ones being /l+ʃ/, /l+j/ and /l+r/, sometimes also /l+n/. However, in certain dialects or in the speech of some speakers even in the standard language, coda /l/ is pronounced very "weakly" and this makes even those clusters common enough.
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '是 (bolo) - to be; become'
non-past: 是 (bol) - is/are
past: 是了 (bolda) - was/were
inchoative: 是始 (bolga) - start(s) to become
terminative: 是住 (bogul) - became
progressive: 是延 (boldum) - is/are becoming
habitual: 是仍 (bolga) - tend(s) to be/become
epistemic 1: 是能 (bolon) - is able to be/become
epistemic 2: 是可 (bolozo) - is/are allowed to be/become
past progressive: 是延了 (bolunda) - was/were becoming
past habitual: 是仍了 (bollada) - used to be/become
past epistemic 1: 是能了 (bolonda) - was able to be/become
past epistemic 2: 是可了 (bolzotta) - was/were allowed to be/become
modal: 是応 (bolge) - should be [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '有 (oru) - to exist'
non-past: 有 (oru) - is/are~exist(s)
past: 有了 (orda) - was/were~existed
inchoative: 有始 (orulga) - come(s) into existence
terminative: 有住 (orgul) - stopped being~ceased to exist
progressive: 有延 (ordim) - is/are being
habitual: 有仍 (ortaga) - is/are usually
epistemic 1: 有能 (ordu) - can be~might exist
epistemic 2: 有可 (orzā) - is/are allowed to exist
past progressive: 有延了 (ordinda) - was/were being
past habitual: 有仍了 (ortāda) - was/were often
past epistemic 1: 有能了 (orunda) - might have existed
past epistemic 2: 有可了 (ōzotta) - was/were allowed to exist
modal: 有応 (olge) - should exist [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '作 (teke) - to do'
non-past: 作 (teke) - does/do
past: 作了 (tēde) - did
terminative: 作住 (tegil) - stopped doing
progressive: 作延 (tedim) - is/are doing
habitual: 作仍 (tekke) - tend(s) to do
epistemic 1: 作能 (tegen) - is able to do
epistemic 2: 作可 (tēze) - is/are allowed to do
past progressive: 作延了 (tende) - was/were doing
past habitual: 作仍了 (tekkede) - used to do
past epistemic 1: 作能了 (tegende) - was able to do
past epistemic 2: 作可了 (tegezette) - was/were allowed to do
modal: 作応 (telge) - should do [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '造 (meke) - to make'
non-past: 造 (meke) - makes~make
past: 造了 (mēde) - made
terminative: 造住 (megil) - stopped making
progressive: 造延 (medim) - is/are making
habitual: 造仍 (mekke) - tend(s) to make
epistemic 1: 造能 (megen) - is able to make
epistemic 2: 造可 (mēze) - is/are allowed to make
past progressive: 造延了 (mende) - was/were making
past habitual: 造仍了 (mekkede) - used to make
past epistemic 1: 造能了 (megende) - was able to make
past epistemic 2: 造可了 (megezette) - was/were allowed to make
modal: 造応 (melge) - should make [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '有 (i) - to have'
non-past: 有 (i) - has/have
past: 有了 (ide) - had
terminative: 有住 (il) - stopped having
progressive: 有延 (idim) - is/are having
habitual: 有仍 (ida) - tend(s) to have
epistemic 1: 有能 (yen) - is able to have
epistemic 2: 有可 (ize) - is/are allowed to have
past progressive: 有延了 (inde) - was/were having
past habitual: 有仍了 (yettede) - used to have
past epistemic 1: 有能了 (yende) - was able to have
past epistemic 2: 有可了 (izette) - was/were allowed to have
modal: 有応 (ilge) - should have [also stem; regular suffixes added]
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION OF '無 (obu) - to not have'
non-past: 無 (obu) - do(es) not have
past: 無了 (ōde) - did not have
terminative: 無住 (obul) - stopped not having
progressive: 無延 (ōdim) - is/are not having
habitual: 無仍 (ōda) - tend(s) to not have
epistemic 1: 無能 (oben) - is able to not have
epistemic 2: 無可 (ōzo) - is/are allowed to not have
past progressive: 無延了 (obunda) - was/were not having
past habitual: 無仍了 (oppoda) - used to not have
past epistemic 1: 無能了 (obonda) - was able to not have
past epistemic 2: 無可了 (ozotto) - was/were allowed to not have
modal: 無応 (obulga) - should not have [also stem; regular suffixes added]
VOCABULARY
PRONOUNS AND DETERMINERS
PRONOUNS [informal]
我 (mo) - I
尔 (to) - you
它 (so) - he, she, it
我乎 (mom) - me
尔乎 (tom) - you
它乎 (som) - him, her, it
我之 (mono) - my
尔之 (tono) - your
它之 (sono) - his, her, its
我向 (monga) - to/for me
尔向 (tonga) - to/for you
它向 (songa) - to/for him, her, it
我与 (mona) - with me
尔与 (tona) - with you
它与 (sona) - with him/her/it
我从 (motto) - from me
尔从 (totto) - from you
它从 (sotto) - from him/her/it
我似 (moda) - like me
尔似 (toda) - like you
它似 (soda) - like him/her/it
我等 (moro) - we
尔等 (toro) - you
它等 (soro) - they
我等乎 (morom) - us
尔等乎 (torom) - you
它等乎 (sorom) - them
我等之 (moron) - our
尔等之 (toron) - your
它等之 (soron) - their
我等向 (morga) - to/for us
尔等向 (torga) - to/for you
它等向 (sorga) - to/for them
我等与 (moran) - with us
尔等与 (toran) - with you
它等与 (soran) - with them
我等从 (moratta) - from us
尔等从 (toratta) - from you
它等从 (soratta) - from them
我等似 (morda) - like us
尔等似 (torda) - like you
它等似 (sorda) - like them
PRONOUNS [formal]
朕 (mon) - I
爾 (ton) - you
厥 (son) - he, she, it
朕乎 (mongo) - me
爾乎 (tongo) - you
厥乎 (songo) - him, her, it
朕之 (monno) - my
爾之 (tonno) - your
厥之 (sonno) - his, her, its
朕向 (monoga) - to/for me
爾向 (tonoga) - to/for you
厥向 (sonoga) - to/for him, her, it
朕与 (monna) - with me
爾与 (tonna) - with you
厥与 (sonna) - with him/her/it
朕从 (monto) - from me
爾从 (tonto) - from you
厥从 (sonto) - from him/her/it
朕似 (monda) - like me
爾似 (tonda) - like you
厥似 (sonda) - like him/her/it
朕達 (mire) - we
爾達 (tire) - you
厥達 (sire) - they
朕達乎 (merum) - us
爾達乎 (terum) - you
厥達乎 (serum) - them
朕達之 (minno) - our
爾達之 (tinno) - your
厥達之 (sinno) - their
朕達向 (mirge) - to/for us
爾達向 (tirge) - to/for you
厥達向 (sirge) - to/for them
朕達与 (minna) - with us
爾達与 (tinna) - with you
厥達与 (sinna) - with them
朕達从 (mirette) - from us
爾達从 (tirette) - from you
厥達从 (sirette) - from them
朕達从 (mirte) - from us [alternative]
爾達从 (tirte) - from you [alternative]
厥達从 (sirte) - from them [alternative]
朕達似 (mirde) - like us
爾達似 (tirde) - like you
厥達似 (sirde) - like them
PRONOUNS [alternative for both formal and informal usage]
私 (ata) - I; my [inalienable]
你 (oto) - you; your [inalienable]
他 (utu) - he, she, it; his, her, its [inalienable]
私乎 (abu) - me
你乎 (obu) - you
他乎 (ubu) - him, her, it
私之 (aga) - my [alienable]
你之 (oga) - your [alienable]
他之 (uga) - his, her, its [alienable]
私向 (azu) - to/for me
你向 (ozu) - to/for you
他向 (uzu) - to/for him, her, it
私与 (azu) - with me
你与 (ozu) - with you
他与 (uzu) - with him/her/it
私从 (agu) - from me
你从 (ogu) - from you
他从 (ugu) - from him/her/it
私似 (akō) - like me
你似 (okō) - like you
他似 (ukō) - like him/her/it
私們 (aban) - we; our [inalienable]
你們 (oban) - you; your [inalienable]
他們 (ubon) - they; their [inalienable]
私們乎 (ambu) - us
你們乎 (ombu) - you
他們乎 (umbu) - them
私們之 (anga) - our [alienable]
你們之 (onga) - your [alienable]
他們之 (unga) - their [alienable]
私們向 (amu) - to/for us
你們向 (omu) - to/for you
他們向 (umu) - to/for them
私們与 (amu) - with us
你們与 (omu) - with you
他們与 (umu) - with them
私們从 (anku) - from us
你們从 (onku) - from you
他們从 (unku) - from them
私們似 (ankō) - like us
你們似 (onkō) - like you
他們似 (unkō) - like them
皆 (yun) - everyone, everybody
皆乎 (yum) - everyone, everybody
皆之 (yuno) - everyone's, everybody's
皆向 (yugo) - to/for everyone, to/for everybody
皆与 (yunna) - with everyone, with everybody
皆从 (yutta) - from everyone, from everybody
皆似 (yunda) - like everyone, like everybody
The alienable/inalienable distinction in one set of pronouns may be an ancient relic or a later innovation. Either way, for some reason it exists.
DETERMINERS
兩 (katta) - both
何 (ma) - what
何 (na) - what [must be followed by a particle]
啥 (mi) - what
啥 (ni) - what [must be followed by a particle]
何物 (nāsa) - what thing [physical]
何事 (nāsa) - what thing [abstract]
何人 (nagoi) - who
此物 (tada) - this thing [close to speaker]
其物 (noda) - that thing [close to listener]
彼物 (kada) - that thing [far from both]
此 (ta) - this, these; this one, these ones [close to speaker]
其 (no) - that, those; that one, those ones [close to listener]
彼 (ka) - that, those; that one, those ones [far from both]
此人 (tagoi) - this person [close to speaker]
其人 (nogoi) - that person [close to listener]
彼人 (kagoi) - that person [far from both]
此所 (tadaga) - this place [close to speaker]
其所 (nodogo) - that place [close to listener]
彼所 (kadaga) - that place [far from both]
NOUNS
地球 (mābōl) - Earth
日 (yala) - sun
日 (pī) - sun [mostly in compounds]
昜 (naya) - sun
月 (kuo) - moon
星 (kutsu) - star
昜光 (naibalga) - sunlight
月光 (kunbalga) - moonlight
星光 (kutsubalga) - starlight
日 (ile) - day; sun
夜 (ei) - night
夜 (yulo) - night
日間 (ilgozo) - daytime
夜間 (eigozo) - night-time
週 (nabigi) - week
月 (kuo) - month
年 (ozo) - year
季節 (kwizette) - season
春 (tuogu) - spring
夏 (suo) - summer
秋 (suesi) - autumn
冬 (telbe) - winter
植季 (narabal) - planting season; sowing season
華季 (chiribal) - time of first blossoms
穫季 (udobal) - harvest season
雪季 (kuzubal) - time of first snow
北 (kuro) - north
東 (nogu) - east
南 (yumi) - south
西 (huru) - west
旭 (higara) - rising sun; emergence [of a positive thing]; up-and-comer [an entertainer, etc.]
旭人 (higartun) - up-and-comer [an entertainer, etc.]; fresh face
曛 (hingala) - sunset; twilight; dusk
瑳 (tsahara) - lustre, glitter, shine [of a gem or something likened to a gem either literally or figuratively]
水月 (utugū) - the moon reflected in water
水朋 (ubissui) - the moon reflected in water; unrequited love [for any reason]; deception [usually romantic and/or sexual]
水朋人 (ubissuidun) - an attractive person who is romantically and/or sexually out of reach [for any reason]; tease; deceiver, con-artist
太陽 (ennai) - sun; eastern or southern side of a mountain
太陰 (ensai) - moon; western or northern side of a mountain
小陽 (chonnai) - sun; eastern or southern side of a hill
小陰 (chossai) - moon; western or northern side of a hill
日月 (ilguo) - sun and moon; certainties of life; life
光 (kwalga) - light; beams or rays of light; gleam, glow
影 (saya) - shadow
火 (pīge) - fire, flame
火 (tulo) - fire, flame; blaze
水 (utu) - water
雪 (lumo) - snow
海 (tolu) - sea
湖 (delge) - lake
湖 (yelge) - lake
湖 (dele) - lake
湖 (yele) - lake
川 (kaba) - river
岸 (kana) - shore; bank; beach; edge of any body of water
海岸 (tolgan) - seashore
湖岸 (yelgen) - lakeshore
川岸 (kōgan) - riverbank
濱 (liogen) - beach [with sand]
海渡 (toburo) - bridge across a sea
湖渡 (yeburo) - bridge across a lake
川渡 (koburo) - river crossing; ford; bridge across a river
氷 (bolo) - ice
川氷 (kōbol) - river ice
湖氷 (yēbol) - lake ice
海氷 (tōbol) - sea ice
解氷 (shushum) - thaw
高準 (ippi) - high water; high tide; high water level
濕 (sizi) - moisture, wetness, dampness
颶 (kuro) - cyclone; typhoon; hurricane
風 (tulo) - wind
風水 (tullūtu) - wind and rain
熏 (kinde) - smoke; fog
霧 (sumo) - mist; vapour; fog
霞 (sumina) - mist; vapour; thin mist; visible air moisture
食 (sebika) - food
古人 (onkoi) - the ancients; ancestor
森 (kuru) - forest
森子 (kuruchu) - small forest
木 (puo) - tree
木子 (puochu) - small tree; bush; branch
枝 (oho) - branch; twig
菇 (kombu) - mushroom
體 (koro) - body [human or animal]
体 (koro) - body; form [can be used figuratively]
人體 (koigoro) - human body
人体 (yintei) - human body; human form [can be used figuratively]
人 (koi) - person; human being
人多 (koita) - people; humans; humanity [irregular]
男 (uru) - man; boy [15~20+ years old]
女 (ninge) - woman; girl [15~20+ years old]
男人 (urugoi) - man; men; males
女人 (ninkoi) - woman; women; females
㚻人 (temolgoi) - intersex/non-binary/transgender person; IS/NB/TG people
侽 (unji) - guy; general term for male person
㚢 (ninji) - girl; general term for female person
𠆧 (nunji) - general term for IS/NB/TG person
男子 (urgun) - boy; son
女子 (ningun) - girl; daughter
人子 (nungun) - child [of any gender]; non-binary child
子 (kun) - child
父 (aba) - father
母 (ana) - mother
爸 (aga) - dad
爸 (baba) - dad
妈 (ama) - mum
妈 (mama) - mum
老爸 (aga) - father; elderly male relative; t.o.a for older man
老母 (aba) - mother; elderly female relative; t.o.a for older woman
父母 (aga) - parent; term of address for older person
父母 (aba) - parent; term of address for older person
父母 (bumu) - father and mother; parents
㽒 (erge) - young man; term of address for younger man
娘 (nize) - young woman; term of address for younger woman
㳇 (aga) - elderly male relative; term of address for older man
姆 (ana) - elderly female relative; term of address for older woman
伯父 (chije) - paternal uncle [older than father]
叔父 (chije) - paternal uncle [younger than father]
伯母 (obo) - paternal aunt [older than father]
叔母 (obo) - paternal aunt [younger than father]
舅父 (chije) - maternal uncle [older than mother]
姨父 (chije) - maternal uncle [younger than mother]
舅母 (obo) - maternal aunt [older than mother]
姨母 (obo) - maternal aunt [younger than mother]
老男 (oguso) - old man; term of address for older man
老女 (ogume) - old woman; term of address for older woman
叟 (baka) - old man; old fool [historically honorific, now derogatory]
媼 (baka) - old woman; old fool [historically honorific, now derogatory]
老娚 (ikatsu) - elder relative
夭娚 (itsuda) - younger relative
弟妹 (itsu) - younger sibling
姊妹 (sazara) - sisters
兄弟 (acchere) - brothers
兄 (akke) - brother [older]
弟 (acche) - brother [younger]
姊 (saza) - sister [older]
妹 (saza) - sister [younger]
夫 (mukuru) - husband
夫 (ukū) - husband
妻 (okobe) - wife
妻 (okō) - wife
丈 (daran) - husband; man
婦 (maba) - wife; woman
娚 (naye) - married couple
婚 (naka) - marriage
族 (sugu) - family; clan; tribe; kin
會 (abā) - meeting, gathering
樂會 (hayabā) - party
鳥 (lundo) - bird
鷹 (koccho) - hawk, falcon, eagle
鴉 (kwara) - crow, raven
鴉子 (kwaruchu) - jackdaw
羽 (tulgo) - wing [of anything, incl. birds, insects, etc.]
羽子 (tulguchu) - feather
翼 (dipu) - wing [of a bird]; fin [of a fish, etc.]
水鳥 (leclege) - water bird
魚 (kala) - fish
島 (sime) - island
島子 (simichi) - small island, islet
嶋 (tō) - hilly or mountainous island
嶋子 (tebichi) - stack [geological formation]
丘 (tsugu) - hill
丘子 (tsuguchu) - small hill, hillock
山 (kwere) - mountain
岳 (korgwere) - tall mountain; high mountain
嶺 (kwerjē) - mountain ridge; mountain range
峯 (taga) - mountaintop; peak; summit
阜 (mette) - mound; heap
冢 (mette) - burial mound
穴 (angar) - hole; opening; cave; pit; lair, den; gateway
孔 (angar) - hole; opening; orifice; gateway
窞 (kwangge) - hole; pit; sinkhole
地穴 (bugumu) - tunnel; burrow; cave
關 (karon) - barrier; frontier pass
道 (huro) - road; path; way
砂 (lio) - sand
心 (sizem) - heart; mind; will; courage, strength; emotion
心臟 (sizem) - heart
腹 (hugu) - stomach, belly
顏 (nūro) - face
貌 (bezel) - facial appearance; facial features; looks
陰莖 (imhē) - penis
陰道 (indō) - vagina
硬枝 (charoho) - penis [poetic; lit. hard branch]
濕蛤 (sizijibi) - vagina; vulva [poetic; lit. moist clam]
胸 (kenge) - chest; bosom
奶 (pongo) - breast [of a woman]
乳 (ibe) - breast [of a woman]
乳 (ibesi) - milk [human]
乳 (siti) - milk [animal]
啂 (nodon) - nipple
馬 (luo) - horse
馬 (moru) - horse
黑馬 (kōmoru) - black horse
白馬 (sīmoru) - white horse
駹 (kōzīmoru) - black horse with a white face; black-and-white horse
騢 (pulzīmoru) - horse of mixed red and white colour; red roan; bay roan
騢 (jaroyo) - multicoloured horse
虹騢 (hilumjaroyo) - multicoloured horse; rainbow-coloured horse; "horse that can run to the end of a rainbow"
䮾騢 (morōjaroyo) - multicoloured horse; magnificent horse; massive horse; horse with dragon-like qualities
騩 (kolikkū) - demonic black horse
驪 (olugōmoru) - fine black horse
騜 (oluzīmoru) - fine white horse
䭸媽 (oshugebi) - all horses belonging to one person or family, etc.
驥 (olumoru) - fast horse
美紅馬 (uchūbulumoru) - Przewalski's horse [lit. beautiful red horse]
䭸 (oshu) - stallion
媽 (gebi) - mare
秣物 (urdumo) - horse fodder
羈 (kojo) - bridle
襲闖動 (salbucchoma) - horseback raid; expansion of territory by raids; capture of prisoners/slaves
襲闖動 (lūbucchoma) - horseback raid; expansion of territory by raids; imposition of one's will on others
戰 (shudo) - fight; battle; war
戰爭 (torjē) - war
犯 (manda) - crime; offence
罪 (mondo) - sin
慰 (tebe) - comfort; consolation; calm; contentment
原 (kende) - field, plain; meadow; grassland; steppe; pasture
原 (hala) - field, plain; meadow; grassland; steppe; pasture [often used in contexts evoking wilderness]
廓原 (nongu) - grassland; steppe; expanse of flat land [often used in contexts involving horses or battles]
草原 (yurmo) - meadow; grassland; prairie [often used in either a romanticising or disparging way]
家畜 (kajukku) - livestock
培動 (hurma) - cultivation; nurturing; fostering; maintainance
農業 (nōgō) - agriculture
農地 (nōdi) - farmland
高 (korgoka) - height; high place
龍 (morō) - dragon
曨 (tagamrō) - rising sun; dragon of the sun
朧 (odamrō) - rising moon; dragon of the moon
彩龍 (saramrō) - multicoloured dragon; colourful dragon; rainbow-coloured dragon; rainbow [poetic]
虹 (hilum) - rainbow
七彩 (tsittsai) - colours of the rainbow; many colours
天 (numa) - sky
畕天 (terunuma) - horizon
美天 (uchūnuma) - beautiful sky
神 (yumo) - spirit, deity [in general]; sky spirit
帝 (tanguru) - sky god
帝地 (tanguru) - abode of the gods
帝言 (tanguru) - an oath before the gods
天命 (tanguru) - will of the gods; Mandate of Heaven
聖地 (bōmā) - sacred place; hallowed ground
信 (ehe) - trust, faith, belief
言 (saba) - word
言言 (sabazaba) - incantation; mantra; slogan
聖言言 (bōzabazaba) - sacred incantation; magical formula; mantra
唵 (om) - om
言 (mono) - speech; word
叫 (muro) - shout, scream, yell
呱 (kwā) - cry, scream [of a baby]
話 (kele) - language
舌 (kele) - tongue
法 (hakaba) - law; rule
手 (kete) - hand
腕 (ketesso) - arm
腋 (konu) - armpit
足 (yalga) - foot
腳 (yalgassa) - leg
股 (poccho) - thigh
俣 (yarma) - crotch, groin
血 (uro) - blood
肉 (sili) - flesh, meat
骨 (luo) - bone
腱 (yerge) - cartilage, gristle; tendon
鱗 (seme) - scales [of a fish]
毛 (appa) - hair, fur
髮 (appa) - hair [on head]
鬒 (iclin) - glossy black hair
貓 (maya) - cat
乕 (hala) - tiger
乕獸 (halahū) - ferocious tiger; tiger; any tiger-like beast
䖘 (kecli) - striped rabbit [orig. Nesolagus sinensis]
兔 (yomol) - hare, rabbit
狼 (beri) - wolf
熊 (orgo) - bear [of any kind]; brown bear
熊 (korom) - bear [of any kind]; brown bear
羆 (hokkorom) - brown bear; grizzly bear; Kodiak bear; Kamchatka brown bear; any unusually large brown bear
大熊 (ho'orgo) - large bear
鹿 (tebe) - deer; elk; any kind of deer-like ungulate
鹿 (monoko) - deer; large horned deer
麕 (kurun) - roe deer; fallow deer; small deer; small horned deer
獐 (charangi) - water deer; small deer; small hornless deer
麂 (gili) - muntjac
貘 (maka) - giant panda
豕 (clika) - pig
野豬 (nōdzika) - wild boar
象 (clanga) - elephant
鮫 (korbu) - shark
蝶 (lebe) - butterfly
蠅 (clomu) - fly
馬蠅 (lūzomu) - horsefly; botfly
馬蠅 (mōzomu) - horsefly; botfly
蠶 (zumu) - silkworm
蚰蜒 (lulon) - house centipede
床 (ozu) - bed
家 (koto) - house; home
宮 (kumi) - palace
王宮 (hōkung) - imperial palace
村 (palga) - village; hamlet; small rural settlement
鎭 (koto) - town; village
鎭根 (kotobu) - town; small urban settlement
市根 (diyuhu) - city; large urban settlement
城 (kwiba) - fortress; fortified settlement; city; castle
畕 (tere) - edge; boundary; border; peripheral territory
囯 (maga) - country, state
囯 (kukko) - country, state; kingdom
王囯 (hōgukko) - kingdom
帝囯 (tēgukko) - empire
南囯 (namgukko) - southern country, southern countries [can also refer to countries perceived as being "southern" even if they're not in the south]
社會 (jakwai) - society
旗 (baraja) - flag; banner
囯旗 (kukki) - national flag
族旗 (sūbaraja) - family flag
王族旗 (hōzūbaraja) - royal standard
社會主義 (jakwaijuge) - socialism
民主 (minju) - democracy
專制 (chonjē) - autocracy, despotism; dictatorship
友 (yordu) - friend
嬉 (yuri) - happiness, gladness, merriness
幸 (hagi) - happiness; good luck, good fortune
良動 (shengeme) - good deed; act of kindness; being helpful
祺 (muron) - auspiciousness; prosperity
凶 (yagami) - inauspiciousness; calamity; ominousness
吉兆 (harayeru) - good omen
凶兆 (nagayeru) - bad omen
惡 (yagi) - evil; malice
根 (hulu) - root; foundation; base
中 (incho) - centre, middle, inside
派 (harga) - group, faction [political]
繇 (huso) - reason
恥 (kwacha) - shame
性交 (shenkō) - sexual intercourse
願 (karma) - desire, wish
欲 (karma) - desire; lust
望 (here) - wish, desire; hope; gaze [from afar]
花 (chichuri) - flower
花 (uro) - flower
華 (chichuri) - blossom; flower
美紅花 (uchūbuluro) - rose [lit. beautiful red flower]
薔花 (rōzuro) - rose flower
菊花 (kuguro) - chrysanthemum flower
莉花 (riluro) - jasmine flower
舞 (igi) - dance
踴 (nura) - joyful dance with singing
舞動 (igime) - dance; dancing
踴動 (nurama) - joyful dance with singing; dancing and singing
饗 (hanga) - feast, banquet, buffet
餼 (takkatsu) - sacrificial offering [anything, but often food]
世界 (shigai) - world
下界 (algende) - netherworld; hell
上界 (nungende) - aetherworld; heaven
歷史 (lecchi) - history
現狀 (henjang) - status quo; as things are
況 (sini) - state, condition
旅 (kulgoma) - trip, journey, travel
訪動 (sogoma) - visit, visitation
訪問 (sogoma) - visit, visitation
訪問 (pōmun) - visit, visitation
囯事訪問 (mātasogoma) - state visit
囯事訪問 (kujipōmun) - state visit
鞍 (nerge) - saddle
馬鞍 (emmel) - saddle
輿 (tergo) - palanquin, litter, cacolet
車 (cleya) - chariot
蠟燭 (lōchokko) - candle
錘 (nūja) - hammer
太錘 (ennūja) - large hammer
錘子 (nūjuchu) - small hammer
束 (chugu) - bundle
繩 (sibike) - rope, cord
禮繩 (sidi) - rope used in rituals
禮繩動 (sidime) - ritual bondage
禮繩人 (siditun) - a person in ritual bondage
禮繩所 (siditu) - place for ritual bondage
賢人 (gintun) - sage; a person who is virtuous, wise, dedicated to something, worthy of something, etc.
庶人 (kocchō) - common people; commoner
俗人 (zōnin) - layperson; worldling; vulgar person
瘋人 (dulugoi) - insane or eccentric person; nonconformist; weirdo
少 (nori) - youth
老 (oni) - old age
新 (kwozoma) - newness; freshness [of things]
鮮 (seneme) - freshness [of food]
靚 (urgubu) - handsomeness; good looks [of a man]
媄 (ningubu) - beauty; good looks [of a woman]
美女 (gūninge) - beautiful woman; beauty
美女 (minebe) - beautiful woman; beauty
美男 (guburu) - handsome man; hunk
美男 (minam) - handsome man; hunk
可愛女 (keoninge) - cute girl
可愛男 (keburu) - cute boy
男演人 (unnubunji) - actor
女演人 (ninubunji) - actress
頭 (penge) - head
目 (silem) - eye
眉 (sorum) - eyebrow
睫 (silmappa) - eyelash
眥 (silmezhure) - corner of the eye
黛 (īzorum) - women's eyebrows; women's black eyebrows and eyelashes
目捉 (silbeyomo) - eye-catchingness; attention-grabbingness
鼻 (nere) - nose
鼻水 (kōmul) - nasal mucus, snot
口 (suo) - mouth
脣 (shulo) - lip
歯 (pingi) - tooth
歯刷 (pīboshiya) - toothbrush
唾 (silgi) - saliva, spit
吐 (koso) - vomit
猿轡 (sūgosha) - gag
瘡 (kubo) - boil; blister; scab; pimple
疽 (pungu) - ulcer; carbuncle; abscess; gangrene; tumour
毒 (kwishe) - poison; venom; toxin
泥 (buzo) - mud
穢 (kiri) - dirt, filth
屎 (hakka) - faeces, excrement
屍 (kalam) - corpse, cadaver, dead body
墓 (mul) - grave, tomb
墓場 (mulba) - graveyard, cemetery
壙 (hagasa) - burial ground
紙 (chogu) - paper
紙 (kete) - paper
紗 (sha) - gauze; muslin
紈 (guban) - white silk; light-coloured silk; fine silk [of any colour]
緋 (pulu) - scarlet silk
絳 (kurūzu) - crimson silk
緅 (suru) - purple silk
服 (puku) - clothes; clothing
服 (bugu) - clothes; clothing [may be used more commonly to refer to Chinese-style clothes]
衣裳 (uzo) - clothes; clothing [may be used more commonly to refer to Chinese-style clothes]
褲 (umi) - pants, trousers
裙 (gulun) - skirt
裳 (dan) - skirt [esp. Chinese-style]
幨 (chobo) - overcoat; coat; jacket
身裙 (hingulun) - dress; gown
全身裙 (zonkingulun) - dress; gown; robe [any garment that covers the entire body]
衵 (kodo) - women's undergarments; undershirt and underskirt
內褲 (injumi) - underwear; briefs; panties
男內褲 (urinjumi) - men's underwear; briefs
女內褲 (ninjumi) - women's underwear; panties
碧龍戰士 (shōmrōjenji) - a kind of warrior; raiders who strike during the night [lit. blue-green dragon warrior]
紅龍戰士 (pulumrōjenji) - a kind of warrior; raiders who strike during the day [lit. red dragon warrior]
球 (pugel) - sphere, orb, ball, globe [orig. "circle"; orthographically repurposed to fit the change in meaning]
圓 (kere) - circle; ring
囘 (kere) - circle; ring; round; rotation
〇 (bōl) - circle; sphere [neologism for both senses; originally the suffixed form of 球 (pugel), orthographically repurposed]
珍珠 (chinchu) - pearl
蚌 (boruga) - oyster
竿 (sōga) - pole, rod, stick
畜竿 (kwessōga) - herding stick
轌 (sugol) - sleigh, sled
他面 (telbe) - other side; opposite side
他面 (tamen) - other side; opposite side
列 (kerde) - order; sequence
可愛 (keo) - cute thing
可愛動 (keoma) - cute behaviour; acting cute; being cute; cuteness
可愛欲 (keogarma) - obsession with being cute; cuteness fetish [used by/of women it usually refers to the former, by/of men the latter, but this isn't absolute]
足欲 (yalgarma) - foot fetish
足摩 (yalgwaja) - footjob
屍欲 (kalmagarma) - necrophilia; sexual attraction to corpses
屍姦 (kalbamolma) - necrophilia; sex with a corpse
映畫 (yengō) - film, movie
映畫集中 (yengōdogo) - film premiere
總統 (tsūtō) - president
王 (honga) - king
皇帝 (gubōtō) - emperor of China
天皇 (tenhō) - emperor of Japan
韓王 (nimgum) - king of Korea
大臣 (daijin) - minister
錢 (zen) - money
笄 (pinne) - hairpin
景色 (kenshiki) - landscape; scenery
名 (nimu) - name [irregular]
指 (chibu) - finger
食指 (shōzo) - index finger
中指 (inchū) - middle finger
名無指 (nintonchū) - ring finger
小指 (tsomu) - little finger
單位 (shore) - unit of measure
個 (kumo) - piece, part
理由 (jubu) - reason; motive
責任 (chekinim) - responsibility; duty; obligation; liability
忘 (unki) - forgetfulness
洗 (poshi) - cleanliness
洗具 (poshiya) - any kind of cleaning implement
餘波 (karazara) - aftermath; aftereffect
ADJECTIVES
大 (ene) - big, large
小 (choro) - small, little
高 (korgo) - high; tall
輕 (kepe) - light [of weight]
廓 (kile) - broad; wide; expansive
厚 (chugu) - thick; voluptuous, curvy [of a woman]; muscular, beefy [of a man]
薄 (kwege) - thin; skinny, lean, slim [of a person]
美 (uchuku) - beautiful
靚的 (urgubuda) - handsome; good-looking [of a man]
媄的 (ningubuda) - beautiful; good-looking [of a woman]
嬛 (sio) - cute, pretty; young and graceful
可愛 (kebe) - cute, adorable, sweet
目捉的 (silbeyomoda) - eye-catching, attention-grabbing
良 (sheng) - good; kind, nice; beneficial
健 (sheng) - healthy
嬉 (yuru) - happy, glad, merry
幸 (haga) - happy; lucky, fortunate
惡 (ado) - evil; malicious
少 (noyo) - young
老 (ono) - old [of a person or animal]
新 (kwozo) - new; fresh [of things]
鮮 (sene) - fresh [of food]
熱 (pego) - hot
暑 (pego) - hot [of weather]
冷 (chiro) - cold
寒 (chiro) - cold [of weather]
温 (rego) - warm
暖 (rego) - warm [of weather]
冽 (chimo) - cool
涼 (chimo) - cool [of weather]
朱 (churu) - dark red; maroon; cinnabar; claret; blood red
紅 (pulu) - red [in general]; medium red; scarlet; crimson; vermillion
赤 (pulu) - red [in general]; medium red; scarlet; crimson; vermillion
纁 (hingal) - light red; orange; pink; amaranth; sky orange
韞 (shara) - bright orange; saffron; candy apple red
黃 (sirē) - yellow; beige; cream-coloured; pale; blonde
緋 (pulu) - scarlet; blushing; lively, energetic; lewd; shameful
絳 (kurūzu) - crimson; regnal; dignified
紫 (libu) - purple; violet; lavender; amethyst
緅 (suru) - dark purple; very dark red
紺 (kumzu) - dark purple; dark violet; dark blue
靑 (kogōn) - dark blue-green; teal; cerulean; sapphire; jungle green
碧 (shongōn) - blue-green [in general]; medium blue-green; jade; sea green
翠 (shono) - light blue-green; cyan; turquoise; emerald; sky blue
鬒 (iclin) - dark yellow-green; dark forest green; olive; near-black
綠 (usho) - yellow-green [in general]; medium green; forest green
艵 (hiji) - light yellow-green; chartreuse; lime; spring bud
黑 (koru) - black
白 (siri) - white
光 (kwalga) - white; light; bright; shining; gleaming; sparkling
黑黑 (kogoru) - very deep black
白白 (siziri) - very bright white
水朋的 (ubissuida) - blue and white/yellow; alluring but elusive; attractive but "fake"; deceptive [usually sexually and/or romantically]
旭的 (higarda) - rising [of the sun]; emerging [of a positive thing]; up-and-coming [of an entertainer, etc.]
祺 (omrada) - auspicious; prosperous
惡 (yaga) - evil; bad; wicked; malicious
聖 (bogo) - sacred, holy
重要 (lumuki) - important
忘 (unkuda) - forgetful
充 (chalga) - full
饒 (kogo) - abundant, plentiful, copious
瑳 (tsahara) - lustrous, shining, brilliant [of a gem or something likened to a gem either literally or figuratively]
饞 (bisebul) - gluttonous, ravenous; overindulgent; insatiable
饞的 (bisebida) - gluttonous, ravenous; overindulgent; hungry
暴 (bō) - violent; cruel; brutal; tyrannical; fierce; extreme
憃 (uko) - stupid, foolish
瘋 (dulu) - insane; eccentric; nonconformist; strange [of a person]
每 (yo) - every, each
每日 (yogile) - every day, all days
充日 (chelgile) - lasting all day, lasting the whole day
停弗 (kulutur) - incessant, ceaseless, pauseless
男 (uru) - male
女 (ninge) - female
㚻 (temol) - intersex; non-binary [of gender]
賢 (gina) - worthy; virtuous; wise [of a person]
充賢 (chelgina) - impeccable; without fault [of a person]
洗 (poshu) - clean
清 (sio) - clean, pure; clear
濕 (sizi) - wet, moist, damp
工口 (ero) - erotic; lewd
森森 (kuruguru) - dense, lush, thriving [of forest, trees, etc.]
狼様 (berigete) - wolflike; silent/invisible and devastating
狼像 (berigete) - wolflike; big and hairy; scary-looking
馬様 (morugoto) - horselike; fast and reliable; endurant
馬像 (morugoto) - horselike; elegant with fine hair [fig. of a person]
左派 (kwasabarga) - left-wing
右派 (ogobarga) - right-wing
名無 (nimungtom) - nameless; anonymous
名無 (nintom) - nameless; anonymous [informal]
漸 (kumogu) - gradual
近 (budo) - soon; upcoming; approaching
ADVERBS
前在 (ezene) - in front
後在 (takana) - behind
前時 (bajanne) - early
後時 (nejenne) - late
上 (ulu) - up
下 (ala) - down
又 (taka) - again
或成 (arōru) - or else, otherwise; then; or consequently
乃 (o) - then
乃 (kwa) - then [expresses surprise, admiration, shock, etc.]
乃成 (neki) - then; and then; consequently
乃然 (tagan) - so; therefore; thus; as such
為 (jubun) - so that; in order to; for the sake of
今 (nim) - now
既 (niki) - already
近 (budo) - soon
何然 (nan) - what; how; such; so
真在 (ūrona) - actually, really, truthfully, truly, in fact
繇从 (husoto) - because; because of
每 (yo/yog-) - every, each [prefix]
每日時 (yogilenne) - daily, every day
充日時 (chelgilenne) - all day, for the whole day
每週時 (yonahīnna) - weekly, every week
每日 (moinitti) - daily, every day
亙 (cluku) - continuous; constant
漸時 (kumogunna) - gradually
陡様然 (genketen) - suddenly, unexpectedly, abruptly
暴然 (bōnan) - violently; cruelly; brutally; tyrannically; fiercely; extremely
手以 (keten) - by hand, manually
停弗然 (kulutunnan) - without stopping; incessantly; without pause; without a break
狼様然 (berigeten) - like a wolf; silently/invisibly and devastatingly
馬様然 (morugoton) - like a horse; quickly and reliably; durably
水朋然 (ubissuinan) - like the moon reflected in water; deceptively [usually sexually and/or romantically]
可愛然 (keben) - cutely
更 (lō) - more
至 (meten) - at least; even
少然 (noyon) - youthfully
老然 (onon) - wisely
新然 (kwozon) - newly; freshly; recently [of things]
鮮然 (senen) - freshly [of food]
凋凋 (kwonko-bonko) - to oblivion; like beating a dead horse
CONJUNCTIONS
及 (o) - and
及 (kwa) - and [expresses surprise, eg. "you AND ME!?"]
或 (aru) - or
虽 (hu) - but; although, even though
卻 (uhu) - however, yet, nonetheless; but
若 (gene) - if; assuming; supposing
若非 (genbo) - if not; unless; if there is no; if not for
偌 (ka) - that [following a verb, eg. "I think (that) you ate too much"]
PARTICLES
么 (ka/ke/ke/ko/ko) - interrogative marker [emphatic]
把 (-ppa/ppe/ppe/ppa/ppa) - topic marker ~ focus particle [after vowels]
把 (-appa/eppe/ippe/oppa/uppa) - topic marker ~ focus particle [after consonants]
介 (-ba) - topic marker [more similar to Japanese は in its range than the above]
㸦 (-ya/ye/ye/ya/ya) - agentive particle ~ secondary subject marker [emphatic; after /m ŋ/ and /mV nV ŋgV/; rarely necessary]
㸦 (-ga/ge/ge/ga/ga) - agentive particle ~ secondary subject marker [emphatic; after /n r l/; rarely necessary]
㸦 (-nga/nge/nge/nga/nga) - agentive particle ~ secondary subject marker [emphatic; elsewhere; rarely necessary]
丌 (-ge/gi/gi/ge/gi) - third-person possessive [emphatic]
乍 (-ja) - particle expressing suddenness
哈 (ta) - quotation particle
The difference between the interrogative suffix 吗 and 么 is that the latter emphasises the question; for example:
食吗? (sebumo?) - are you going to eat?
食么? (sebu ko?) - hey, are you going to eat?
While 吗 does not have any notable intonational difference, 么 tends to have a rising or dipping pitch and may be elongated; it nonetheless has a short vowel, and elongating it beyond the length of long vowels with too exaggerated a change in pitch is considered annoying. That's not to say 吗 can't have a rising pitch, too, but it's equally common for it to be accentually consistent.
The third-person emphatic possessive 丌:
友丌 (yordu-gi) - HIS friend
The difference between the agentive case and emphatic agentive particle is as follows:
貓补鳥殺了 (mayan lundo kwezede) - the cat killed the bird
貓㸦鳥殺了 (maya-nga lundo kwezede) - it was the cat that killed the bird
Although the agentive would generally not be marked at all, sometimes it is considered better to do so for clarity, usually in complex sentences. An important thing to note is that it's (usually) only used when there is an action affecting something else (with some possible exceptions especially in formal writing), while the emphatic agentive particle can be used for emphasis in any kind of sentence.
把 puts the focus on whatever comes before it with an implication of importance and may be honorific in some contexts (or informal in others), while 介 is more neutral overall without any inherent implications... but it might get a bit muddy sometimes.
POSTPOSITIONS
前時 (bajanne) - before; earlier than
後時 (nejenne) - after; later than
PREFIXES
無 (a/e/e/e/a) - non-, not
無 (a/e/e/e/a) - non-, not [induces voicing in /p t k/]
無 (an/en/en/en/an) - non-, not [before /n d g z d͡z d͡ʒ/]
無 (an/en/en/en/an) - non-, not [before vowels]
SUFFIXES
歲 (ozē) - -year-old [after a consonant]
歲 (zē) - -year-old [after a vowel]
無 (gtam/gtem/gtem/gtom/gtom) - -less [after /n/] - turns the /n/ into an /ŋ/
無 (attam/ettem/ittem/attom/uttom) - -less [after other consonants; monosyllabic roots]
無 (tam/tem/tem/tom/tom) - -less [after other consonants; polysyllabic roots]
無 (ttam/ttem) - -less [after a vowel]
者 (wa) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [after /ru/; replaces the last vowel]
者 (ya/ye) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [after /mV nV pV bV kV gV/ in polysyllabic roots; replaces the last vowel]
者 (ccha/cche) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [after /tV/; replaces the last syllable]
者 (jja/jje) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [after /dV/; replaces the last syllable]
者 (ya/ye) - -er (agent noun suffix for verbs) [elsewhere]
VERBS
是 (bolo) - to be; become [irregular]
有 (oru) - to exist [irregular]
有 (i) - to have, own, possess [irregular]
無 (obu) to not have, own, possess [irregular]
有始 (orulga) - to come into existence, come to be; form; take form
有始 (ilge) - to acquire, gain; develop
造 (meke) - to make, create; build [irregular]
作 (teke) - to do [irregular]
見 (kwana) - to see; view; look at
集中 (togo) - to focus
聞 (kulu) - to hear
聞匉 (kulo) - to be heard
響 (kolgo) - to make a sound; echo; reverberate
話 (yutto) - to say; speak, talk; talk about
問 (soro) - to ask
生 (ele) - to live; to be alive
死 (kolo) - to die
殺 (kweze) - to kill
埋 (moldu) - to bury
與 (anda) - to give
贈 (katsu) - to give, offer [something precious]
膳 (ulo) - to give food; feed [a person]
含 (bumite) - to hold in the mouth
華 (hudo) - to bloom, blossom [often literally, eg. with the noun 花/華 (chichuri)]
華 (hutto) - to bloom, blossom [often literally, eg. with the noun 花/華 (chichuri); emphatic, eg. "blooming very much" or "all blooming"]
華 (chichuru) - to bloom, blossom [literally or figuratively]
植 (nara) - to plant; to cultivate
種 (moko) - to sow
穫 (udo) - to harvest
培 (huro) - to cultivate; nurture; foster; maintain
補修 (poshū) - to repair; renovate; restore; maintain
讓 (sagatta) - to allow, permit, let
願 (karma) - to desire, wish, want
欲 (karma) - to desire; lust after
望 (here) - to wish, desire; hope; gaze [from afar]
信 (ehe) - to believe
言 (mono) - to say
叫 (muro) - to shout, scream, yell
呱 (kwā) - to cry, scream, wail [of a baby]
食 (sebu) - to eat
饞 (bisebu) - to overeat; be gluttonous
咀 (kibo) - to chew; gnaw
嚥 (numu) - to swallow
饒 (kogomu) - to be abundant, plentiful, copious
饗 (hanga) - to host a feast, banquet, buffet
秣 (urdu) - to feed [a horse]
餵 (ordo) - to feed [anything]
啂 (imi) - to suck [on a nipple]
吮 (imi) - to suck [on anything]
唾 (silgi) - to spit
吐 (koso) - to vomit
昇 (nobo) - to rise; ascend
沈 (otsu) - to fall; descend
登 (kao) - to climb
從 (taga) - to follow
恐 (pele) - to be afraid; fear
目捉 (silbeyomo) - to attract attention; draw the eyes
唆 (ile) - to seduce; tempt; entice; charm; attract [not necessarily with negative implications]
眽 (kwana) - to ogle; look at; stare at; spy on
摸 (yomo) - to grope, fondle
觸 (koho) - to touch
摩 (kwaja) - to rub
打 (chaba) - to hit, punch, beat; chop
複 (takana) - to repeat
停 (kulu) - to stop
完 (kwidu) - to end; to be finished
忘 (unko) - to forget [anything; no implications]
忘凶 (muku) - to forget [something one does not want to forget]
忘可 (muki) - to forget [something one wants to forget]
忘叵 (mukonu) - to be unable to forget [of anything; no implications]
忘匉 (moku) - to be forgotten [of anything; no implications]
忘凶匉 (moku) - to be forgotten [of something one does not want to forget]
忘可匉 (moki) - to be forgotten [something one wants to forget]
忘叵匉 (mokonu) - to be unforgettable [of anything; no implications]
凋 (kwonko) - to fade away
讚 (ecchi) - to praise
剝 (kwakka) - to peel; skin; strip
隔 (tselte) - to separate
洗 (poshu) - to clean
閉 (sulgo) - to close, shut
隠 (kecche) - to hide, stash [transitive]
閟 (kecche) - to hide, stash [transitive, can be figuratively; something precious, illegal, etc.]
充 (chalga) - to fill
旅 (kulgo) - to travel
逃 (urgo) - to flee, escape, run away
至 (yaga) - to reach, arrive; come; result in
入 (peri) - to enter; come inside
會 (hanga) - to meet, gather, congregate
訪 (sogo) - to visit
闖 (puccho) - to burst in; charge in; break through; to raid a settlement [usually on horseback]
襲闖 (salbuccho) - to raid a settlement [usually on horseback]; expand territory by raids; capture prisoners/slaves
襲闖 (lūbuccho) - to raid a settlement [usually on horseback]; expand territory by raids; impose one's will on others
暴 (bukku) - to expose, reveal, show [something unpleasant]
待 (ojo) - to wait
乘 (puno) - to ride; mount
戰 (shudo) - to fight
緋 (pulu) - to blush
恥 (kwacha) - to be ashamed
緋恥 (pulgwacha) - to be deeply ashamed
輝 (koga) - to shine, sparkle, radiate; be lustrous
雪 (kuzu) - to snow
解 (shushu) - to thaw
濕 (sizi) - to become wet, moist, damp
燒 (deke) - to burn [transitive]
腐 (sei) - to rot; decay; spoil; mould [of flesh, fruits, etc.]
朽 (sei) - to rot; decay [of wood]
產 (umu) - to give birth
產 (umuna) - to give birth; breed; be fertile
孳 (bumuna) - to breed in large numbers; have many children; multiply; be prolific, productive [figuratively]
習 (tebe) - to flap [wings]; flutter; fly [of a bird]
飛 (hile) - to fly [of anything, incl. birds]
舞 (igi) - to dance
踴 (nura) - to dance joyfully while singing
高準 (ippi) - to rise [of water]
喵 (maya) - to meow
縛 (sibi) - to tie up; bind; restrain [with rope, etc.]
捆 (siti) - to tie up; bundle together
婚 (nai) - to marry; get married
男婚 (urugani) - to marry a man
女婚 (ningani) - to marry a woman
恥 (kwacha) - to shame, humiliate
破 (molu) - to break; destroy; ruin; destabilise; bring down
姦 (molu) - to violate; abuse; rape
屍姦 (kalbamolu) - to have sex with a corpse
碎 (muro) - to shatter, crumble, break apart, fall apart
碎 (chenke) - to break with _ [an object]
轢 (chenke) - to run over with _ [a vehicle]
拈 (chibu) - to pinch
摘 (tebi) - to pluck, pick [flowers, fruits, leaves, etc.]
機能 (kinē) - to function, work
服 (puku) - to wear, dress [intransitive]
衣 (putto) - to dress, clothe [transitive]
NUMERALS
零 (lenge) - zero
一 (itti) - one
二 (katta) - two
三 (kolom) - three
四 (nile) - four
五 (udo) - five
六 (kudo) - six
七 (senke) - seven
八 (yala) - eight
九 (kegen) - nine
十 (chobo) - ten
些 (kweshe) - a couple, a few, some
十一 (chōyutti) - eleven
十二 (chōgatta) - twelve
十三 (chōgolom) - thirteen
十四 (chōnile) - fourteen
十五 (chōbudo) - fifteen
十六 (chōgudo) - sixteen
十七 (chōzenke) - seventeen
十八 (chōyala) - eighteen
十九 (chōkken) - nineteen
二十 (kacchobo) - twenty
三十 (kolchobo) - thirty
四十 (nilchobo) - forty
五十 (ucchobo) - fifty
六十 (kucchobo) - sixty
七十 (senchobo) - seventy
八十 (yalchobo) - eighty
九十 (kēchobo) - ninety
些十 (kwecchobo) - a couple dozen, some dozens
二十一 (kacchōyutti) - twenty-one
二十二 (kacchōgatta) - twenty-two
二十三 (kacchōgolom) - twenty-three
二十四 (kacchōnile) - twenty-four
二十五 (kacchōbudo) - twenty-five
二十六 (kacchōgudo) - twenty-six
二十七 (kacchōzenke) - twenty-seven
二十八 (kacchōyala) - twenty-eight
二十九 (kacchōkken) - twenty-nine
百 (nama) - hundred
一百 (innama) - one hundred
二百 (kannama) - two hundred
三百 (konnomo) - three hundred
四百 (ninnama) - four hundred
五百 (unnomo) - five hundred
六百 (kunnomo) - six hundred
七百 (sennama) - seven hundred
八百 (yannama) - eight hundred
九百 (kennama) - nine hundred
些百 (kwennama) - a couple hundred, some hundreds
千 (minga) - thousand; a lot
一千 (imminge) - one thousand
二千 (kamminga) - two thousand
三千 (kolminga) - three thousand
四千 (nilminge) - four thousand
五千 (umminga) - five thousand
六千 (kumminga) - six thousand
七千 (semminge) - seven thousand
八千 (yalminga) - eight thousand
九千 (kēminge) - nine thousand
些千 (kwemminge) - a couple thousand, some thousands
万 (miban) - ten thousand; myriad; a lot
一万 (immōn) - ten thousand
二万 (kammōn) - twenty thousand
三万 (kolmōn) - thirty thousand
四万 (nilmōn) - forty thousand
五万 (ummōn) - fifty thousand
六万 (kummōn) - sixty thousand
七万 (semmōn) - seventy thousand
八万 (yalmōn) - eighty thousand
九万 (kēmōn) - ninety thousand
些万 (kwemmōn) - a couple ten thousand, some ten thousands
百万 (nammōn) - million; a vast amount
一百万 (innammōn) - one million
二百万 (kanammōn) - two million
三百万 (konnommōn) - three million
四百万 (ninnammōn) - four million
五百万 (unnommōn) - five million
六百万 (kunnommōn) - six million
七百万 (sennammōn) - seven million
八百万 (yannammōn) - eight million
九百万 (kēnammōn) - nine million
些百万 (kwennammōn) - a couple million, some millions
千万 (mimmōn) - ten million; a vast amount
一千万 (immimmōn) - ten million
二千万 (kamimmōn) - twenty million
三千万 (kolmimmōn) - thirty million
四千万 (nilmimmōn) - forty million
五千万 (ummimmōn) - fifty million
六千万 (kummimmōn) - sixty million
七千万 (semmimmōn) - seventy million
八千万 (yalmimmōn) - eighty million
九千万 (kēmimmōn) - ninety million
些千万 (kwemmimmōn) - a dozen million, some dozen millions
亿 (yekki) - hundred million; incomprehensibly large amount
一亿 (iyekki) - one hundred million
二亿 (kayekki) - two hundred million
三亿 (koyekki) - three hundred million
四亿 (niyekki) - four hundred million
五亿 (uyekki) - five hundred million
六亿 (kuyekki) - six hundred million
七亿 (seyekki) - seven hundred million
八亿 (yayekki) - eight hundred million
九亿 (kēyekki) - nine hundred million
些亿 (kweyekki) - a couple hundred million, some hundred millions
CLASSIFIERS
呵 (-ga/ge) - general
句 (-go) - words, sentences, etc.
岸 (-n) - general [with hundreds - thousands]
干 (-gan/gen) - general [with tens of thousands - millions]
干 (-n) - general [with hundreds of millions]
回 (-kē) - times, occurrences
回 (-gē) - times, occurrences (preceded by /k tt kk/)
元 (-ba/be) - people
君 (-ba/be) - people
匹 (-bu) - horses and other large animals with tails
頭 (-gu) - cattle and other large animals [after vowels]
頭 (-ū) - cattle and other large animals [after consonants]
PROPER NOUNS
挧熕 (Ulduga) - Ulduga [endonym for conpeople]
挧熕話 (Ulduga kele) - Ulduga language [endonym for the conpeople's language]
挧熕囯 (Uldugamā) - Ulduga country [country of conpeople]
奔餮胡 (Pulduga) - Pulduga [exonym for conpeople; derogatory, lit. "running gluttonous barbarians"]
賁鐵瑚 (Pulduga) - Pulduga [exonym for conpeople; new orthography, lit. "brave iron people of virtue"]
勛仙 (Hunzen) - Hun; Huns [conpeople; folk endonym, lit. "meritious immortal"]
勛戎 (Hunnū) - Hun; Huns [as allies]
勛話 (Hun kele) - Hunnic language [the language of allies]
匈奴 (Honna) - Hun; Huns [as enemies in the northwest]
匈話 (Hon kele) - Hunnic language [the language of northwestern enemies]
中囯 (Chūgukko) - China
朝鮮 (Chōshen) - Korea
日本 (Nippon) - Japan
俄羅斯 (Orosu) - Russia