Noiraka language

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Re: Noiraka language

Post by Omzinesý »

It seems I forgot to copy-paste the syntax section from my scrap thread.
Here it is a bit modified.

Bivalent constructions

The transitive construction is not used as much as in many other languages. It is only used of semantically transitive propositions, where somebody really causes something. So, there are some other bivalent constructions beside it.

Noiraka word order is not very strict. It is just usual that the argument without a preposition appears leftmost. Word order does not code information structure. Word order changes a mostly motivated by phrase length.

The transitive construction

[Predicate] [Absolutive Argument] k-[Ergative Argument]

(1a)
He soke i poju k-a hetaika
SENSORY kill INDEF cat ERG-DEF hunter
'The hunter killed a cat.'

It can be modified by "voices".
Antipassive is formed by incorporating "noi" thing.

(1b)
He soke-noi a hetekai
SENSORY kill-ANTIP DEF hunter
'The hunter killed.'

A passive/anticausative is just the clause without the ergative argument.

(1c)
He soke i poju.
SENSORY kill INDEF cat
'The cat was killed/died.'


Non-transitive constructions
Their basic frame is:
[Predicate] [Primary argument] preposition-[Secondary Argument]

Mental construction:

This construction is used of verbs expressing mental activity and perception. Preposition t- can often be translated 'about' in English.

[Predicate] [Experiencer Argument] t-[Stimulus Argument]

(2a)
Pa heseeka a hetekai t-a poju.
INFER think DEF hunter about-DEF cat
'The hunter is thinking about the cat.'

The t- argument is an object in the sense that it can be incorporated. Noi incorporation is not needed because the t- argument can be dropped, (1c).

(2b)
Heseeka-pojû a hetekai.
think-cat DEF hunter
'The hunter is thinking about cats.'

("Poju" in "heseeka-poju" has a glottalized consonant to mark incorporation.)

(2c)
Heseeka a hetekai.
think DEF hunter
'The hunter is thinking.'

Habeo construction (still considering how big its semantic space is)

[Predicate] [Posssessor Argument] [Possessed Argument]

The most frequent verb in it is the semantically bleached yee 'exist'.
Formally it is like Mental Construction but the preposition is m^-.

(3a)
Ta yee a hetekai m-î poju.
FACT exist DEF hunter POSSESSED-INDEF cat
'The hunter has a cat.'

Literally, (3a) could be translated 'The hunter is there having a cat.'

The object can be incorporated.

(3b)
Ta taja-poju a hetekai.
FACT have-cat DEF hunter
'The hunter has cats.'


Location construction

[Predicate] [Subject] [Locative]

Noiraka is a prototypical verb-framed language. That is, verbs of motion express either motion to somewhere or motion about somewhere. Being somewhere is also expressed by the same construction.
Because locatives inherently express location, no preposition is needed.

(4a)
He yaa a hetekai a koipu.
SENSORY exist DEF hunter DEF in.forest
'The hunter is in the forest.'

(4b)
He hee a hetekai a koipu.
SENSORY go DEF hunter DEF in.forest
'The hunter went to the forest.'
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Re: Noiraka language

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Aspect (message not ready)

Aspect marking depends much on Aktionsart.

Noiraka verbs have two morphological aspects.
Nonhabitual codes the action unique or repeated a limited time only, (1a). With telic verbs or verbs that can be telic, it is interpreted as perfective aspect. With atelic verbs it is interpreted as progressive.
Habitual codes action habit or characteristic, (1b).

(1a)
He hao tahiju a maemae.
SENSORY many(times) jump.NHAB DEF girl
'The girl jumped repeatedly.'

(1b)
He hao taahiju a maemae.
SENSORY many(times) jump.NHAB DEF girl
'The girl jumps sometimes/often.'



Perfective aspect, when it has some limited span of time or distance, is marked by particle/postposition woosa 'for'. In (2), woosa is aperfective aspectual particle and, in (3) and (4), a postposition of the exact time span. (The idea comes from Toki Pona vocative preposition/imperative particle o.)

(2)
Heseeka woosa a hetekai t-a paju.
think PERFVE DEF hunter about-DEF cat
'The hunter is thinking about the cat, for a while.'

(3)
Heseeka i kopa paura woosa a hetekai t-a paju.
think DEF three week for hunter about-DEF cat
'The hunter is thinking about the cat for three weeks.'

(4)
Nûpi a paju kopa topijo woosa .
run DEF cat three T for
'The can ran three topijos[=780 meters].'
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Re: Noiraka language

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An attempt to translate a small discource.

He yaa a senii oko m-î saja paju. He keepera neur-a kohoji paju; mêe neur-a sajaji paju. Ta pou-pou peema ojo t-a paju wei keepeta.
[he'jä: ä'seni: '(j)oko m̰isäɟä'päɟu] [heke:'peɾä neuɾäkohoɟi'päɟu] ['m̰e: neuɾäsäɟäɟi'päɟu] [täpoupou'pe:mä 'oɟo tä'päɟu weike:'peta]
‘My friend has two cats. One likes jumping and the other does not. I like the cat that does not jump more.'

He yaa a senii oko m-î saja paju.
SENSORY exist DEF friend my PREP-INDEF cat
‘My friend has two cats.’

He keepera neur-a kohoji paju; mêe neur-a sajaji paju.
SENSORY jump VOL-DEF first cat; NEG.SENSORY VOL-DEF second cat
‘The first cat likes jumping; the second cat does not.’

Ta pou-pou peema ojo t-a paju wei keepeta.
ta pou-pou pema.LENGTH ojo OBL-a paju wei kepera.LENGTH.GRAGE
EGO much-much like.NHAB sg1.M DEF cat NEG jump.HAB.RELATIVE
‘I like the cat that does not jump more.’
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Re: Noiraka language

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Probably, I should give the verb a bit more morphology.

Verb without suffix is lexically either Habitual or Nonhabitual. The other value is marked.

-we 'Nonhabitual'
Lengthening of the last vowel 'Habitual'

Two relative tenses are used in dependent clauses, especially.
-i, 'Posteror, before, and then'
-u 'Anterior, after'

Noosa 'loves'
Noosawe 'is loving'
Noosai 'before loving'
Noosau 'after loving'

Popoo 'usually eats'
Popo 'ate, is eating'
Popoi 'before eating'
Popou 'after eating'

There might also be a kind of different-subject marker -p(e), which only appears in dependent clauses. It is usually followed by the article of the absolutive argument, it isn't consonant-final, phonotactically.
What is subject in Noiraka is a question. Probably it is the ergative argument in the transitive construction and the absolutive argument in all others. (Or there could be two such markers.)

He okora o-Piita, sousap o-Nora.
SENSORY work PROPN-Peter, sleep-DS PROP-Nora
'Peter was working, while Nora was sleeping.'
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Re: Noiraka language

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I will probably get rid of the preposition/conjunction s- 'and'.
Coordinated nouns in an NP share one article

a [ êki ôku ] 'the woman and the man'

That differs from the genitive construction where both have own articles:

u êki a ôku 'the woman of the man'

If coordinated nouns have different articles, there must be a conjunction:

o Piita sei u paahe
PROPR P and POSS wife
'Peter and his wife'
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Re: Noiraka language

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Adverbial clauses and something about other dependent clauses

Relative clauses are rare in Noiraka. They are always restrictive and specify a subgroup of a group that has already been specified earlier. The message two messages earlier is an example of that. It is already told that my friend has cats and now I'm referring to one of them, specifically. Non-restrictive relative clauses are alike with adverbial clauses so I don't analyse them as a separate category.

(1)
Ta pou-pou peema ojo t-a paju wei keepeta.
ta pou-pou pema.LENGTH ojo OBL-a paju wei kepera.LENGTH.GRAGE
EGO much-much like.NHAB sg1.M DEF cat NEG jump.HAB.RELATIVE
‘I like the cat that does not jump more.’

So now to adverbial clauses.
Syntactically adverbial clauses are adjuncts (optional participants) of the matrix clause.

They can express
a) time, cause, condition, accompanying activity ...
or
b) they can bring discourse forward. (That is usually done with another main clause in English.)
Недялков has some typological names for a) and b) but I don't remember them.

Dependent clauses are positioned after the matrix clause. There must be a strategy for overcoming that but it's left for future messages.

All dependent clauses lack the epistemic particle.

Coreferential arguments and SS and DS


Word order in dependent clauses is the same as in matrix clauses. Corefetential participants are, however, usually dropped.

If the absolutive argument of the dependent clause is coreferential with a participant in the matrix clause, it is not explicitly expressed, (2).

(2)
He hee i ôku taipare-i, peta m-î taro.
SENSORY go INDEF man in.shop-INDEF, buy OBL-INDEF milk
'A man went to a shop and bought some milk.'

If the ergative argument of the dependent clause is coreferential with a participant in the matrix clause, it is not explicitly expressed, (3a).

(3a)
We yora ojo t-a êki, taahija moume.
EGO see sg1 OBL-DEF woman, burn leaf
'I saw the woman. She was burning leaves.'

If any other participant of the dependent clause is coreferential with a participant in the matrix clause, it is repeated as a resumptive pronoun that is the old fellow, sg3 aa, (5).

(5)
He kaha ojo i yêi saata, yora kuupa t-aa.
SENSORY have sg1 INDEF new neighbor, see not.yet OBL-sg3
'I have a new neighbor, whom I haven't seen yet.'

It is usually ambiguous which participant of the matrix clause is coreferential with a participant in the dependent clause. In practice, it is usually evident from the context. In the translation section there is sentence "The man sees the woman using the telescope." where it is ambiguous who is using the telescope. It is ambiguous in Noiraka, too, (6)

(6)
He yora a ôku t-a êki, kaasi kiipiyota.
SENSORY see DEF man OBL-DEF woman, use telescope.
'The man sees the woman using the telescope.'


If there is no shared argument, time and place adjuncts don't usually matter here, the dependent clause has a different-subject (DS) marker -p(e). The word following it is usually an absolutive argument without a preposition, so -p can end in a consonant. Same-subject is not explicitly marked. (3b) differs from (3a) above in that its dependent clause has an intransitive verb.

(3b)
We yora ojo t-a êki, taahijap moume.
EGO see sg1 OBL-DEF woman, burn.DS leaf
'I saw the woman, while leaves were burning.'


Time relations and prepositions /subordinate conjunctions


The current version of Noiraka has four tense-aspects. I think Noiraka should be more analytic, but that's the current state.

tuâ 'is feeling pain'
tuâa 'usually feels pain, is sickly'
tuâu 'felt pain'
tuâi 'will feel pain'

In dependent clauses, the two last ones mark anterior and posterior, (8), respectively, in respect to the matrix clause. The -i form is often translated 'and then', (7), giving the discourse a telic reading, things happen one after another.

(7)
He topiri a ûsu k-a êki, taisarai kai.
SENSORY build DEF building ERG-DEF woman, move.in.POSTERIOR there
'The woman built a house and moved in.

(8)
We toosaje ojo,popou.
EGO walk sg1, eat.ANTERIOR
'I go walking when I have eaten.'

As with English -ing infinites, pare dependent clauses without conjunction or preposition have a big variety of interpretations. They are mostly determined by the discourse.

As in English, prepositions can be added before adverbial clauses. Here I interpret them prepositions because they can appear before nouns, as well.

(9)
He kokonu u senii oko, woosa keepera u paju.
SENSORY be.angry POSS friend my, the.time.of jump.around POSS cat
'My friend was angry all the time her cat was jumping around.'

[The list of such prepositions will appear later.]
Edit: This message did not handle complement clauses. I think their syntax depends on the main verb.
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Re: Noiraka language

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Peter said that ...

I'm approaching case by case what is complement clause in SAE.

In Noiraka, 'Peter says' is handled as an adverbial clause and what he says is the matrix clause. It always has reportative particle .
Verbs of 'saying' are syntactically transitive in Noiraka, that is, they take the sayer in Ergative.

(1)
Kihape k-o Piita, nû tasekaa i hatai k-u saata.
say-DS ERG-PROP P, REPORTED beat.HAB INDEF donkey ERG-POSS neighbor
'Peter said that his neighbor beats a donkey.'

'Perter said' being an adverbial clause, there is no epistemic particle. Probably there could be two epistemic particles in a complex.


(1?)
Kihape k-o Piita, he-nû tasekaa i hatai k-u saata.
say-DS ERG-PROP P, SENSORY-REPORTED beat.HAB INDEF donkey ERG-POSS neighbor
'Peter said that his neighbor beats a donkey. (I heard him say it.)'
?

If there is no need to emphasize the manner of expressing the issue, the verb expressing can be dropped.

(2)
K-o Piita, nû tasekaa i hatai k-u saata.
ERG-PROP P, REPORTED beat.HAB INDEF donkey ERG-POSS neighbor
'According to Peter, his neighbor beats a donkey.'

(2?)
K-o Piita, he-nû tasekaa i hatai k-u saata.
ERG-PROP P, SENSORY-REPORTED beat.HAB INDEF donkey ERG-POSS neighbor
'According to Peter, his neighbor beats a donkey. (I heard him say it.)'
?

Kihape k-o Piita can be analysed having a dropped object, because aa is usually dropped when it has no preposition, 'Peter saying it, his neighbor beets a donkey.'.

If one of the arguments of the main clause is the same as the sayer, DS marker is not used. Peter can still appear in the adverbial clause and be dropped in the matrix clause.

(3)
Kiha k-o Piita, nû tasekaa i hatai.
say ERG-PROP P, REPORTED beat.HAB INDEF donkey
'Peter said that he beats a donkey.'

Adverbial clauses preceding the matrix clause are thus somewhat more finite than those following the matrix clause. 1) They can have shared shared articles explicitly expressed while the main clause has anaphoras. 2) They can have an epistemic particle, which appears in a "particle cluster" on the edge of the clauses.
Last edited by Omzinesý on 16 Jul 2021 12:18, edited 1 time in total.
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Re: Noiraka language

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Omzinesý wrote: 11 Jul 2021 00:23 Probably, I should give the verb a bit more morphology.

Verb without suffix is lexically either Habitual or Nonhabitual. The other value is marked.

-we 'Nonhabitual'
Lengthening of the last vowel 'Habitual'

Two relative tenses are used in dependent clauses, especially.
-i, 'Posteror, before, and then'
-u 'Anterior, after'

Noosa 'loves'
Noosawe 'is loving'
Noosai 'before loving'
Noosau 'after loving'

Popoo 'usually eats'
Popo 'ate, is eating'
Popoi 'before eating'
Popou 'after eating'
I have two contradictory intentions.
- I would like to keep Noiraka analytical. Four tense-aspects is a bit too many.
- I would like most adverbial clauses appear without a conjunction.

I think, Noiraka will return to two aspects: Non-habitual and Habitual.
I must rethink how they are formed.

--------------------------

(1)
He hotara a seka k-o Piita, pejup o Nora pera.
SENSORY open DEF door ERG-PROP P, enter.DS PROP N in.house

Should (1) mean a) 'Peter opened the door and then Nora entered the house.' or b) 'Peter opened the door while Nora was entering the house.'?

The solution apparently lies in Actionsart / lexical aspect. Verbs that primarily express quite quick change without duration are interpreted 'and then' in a verb chain, while verbs with duration are primarily interpreted so that something is done during the action/state the verb describes.

Wikipedia has https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_a ... sification of Artionsarten. It says semelfactives, achievements and accomplishments have in common that all have a "culminating event".

So there are two kinds of verbs:
1) Culminating-event verbs
2) Non-culminating-event verbs

So, (1) should be interpreted a) 'Peter opened the door and then Nora entered the house.' because both hotaka 'open' and peju 'enter' are culminating-event.
Culminating-event verbs can be forced expressing duration using duration particle wono 'be Ving'. (2) has the interpretation b) 'Peter opened the door while Nora was entering the house.'.

(2)
He hotara a seka k-o Piita, pejup o Nora pera wono.
SENSORY open DEF door ERG-PROP P, enter.DS PROP N in.house PROG
'Peter opened the door while Nora was entering the house.'

(3)
He hasuja o Piita, pejup o Nora pera.
SENSORY sing PROP P, enter.DS PROP N in.house
'Peter was singing, when Nora entered the house.'

Because hasuja 'sing' is a non-culminating-event verb, (3) is not interpreted 'Peter sang and then Nora entered the house.'.

Non-culminating-event verbs can be formed to work like culminating-event verb with particle woosa 'a limited time'.

(4)
He hasuja woosa o Piita, pejup o Nora pera.
SENSORY sing TELIC PROP P, enter.DS PROP N in.house
'Peter was sang, and then Nora entered the house.'

I chose the habitual-nonhabitual aspect system, because all verbs always have at least one interpretation possible.

Subordinating conjunctions
yo 'and then'
su 'after'
woosa 'the time of'
woi 'if' (non-factual)
ê 'if' (counterfactual)
...

Stealing a sentence from Vaptuantadoi.

(5)
Taseka ojo k-ooru moo, ê-we taseka ooru k-ojo tawana.
hit sg1.M ERG.SG2.M in.the.past, if-EGO hit SG2.M ERG-SG1.M back
'If you had hit me, I would've hit you back.'

Conjunctions, like possible epistemic particles, of adverbial clauses preceding their matrix clause appear in a "particle cluster" on the edge of the two clauses.
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Re: Noiraka language

Post by Omzinesý »

Ditransitives

Earlier Noiraka had preposition pir- 'to' for marking the recipient argument. But it also has theme preposition m^-.
So, Noiraka doesn't actually need pir- for anything.
It will be a primary-secondary-object language, where the recipient argument is marked by the bare form, Absolutive.

I can save pir- as verb piru 'give'.

(1)
He piru a maemae k-a êsi m-î paju.
SENSORY give DEF daughter ERG-DEF mother THEME-INDEF cat
'Mother gave the daughter a cat.'

Verbs of expressing things also take the hearer in the absolutive form.

(2) (modifying an older example)
Kihap a êsi k-o Piita, he-nû tasekaa i hatai k-u saata.
say-DS DEF mother ERG-PROP P, SENSORY-REPORTED beat.HAB INDEF donkey ERG-POSS neighbor
'Peter said to mother that his neighbor beats a donkey. (I heard him say it.)'

Kiha 'say' cannot be dropped, as it can if there is no recipient argument.
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Re: Noiraka language

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The second topic could be information structure.

I don't have good ideas for it.

Contrastive focus / argument focus could have a special set of articles

aaâ ôku 'the man'
iiî ôku 'a man'
uuû ôku 'his/her man' (still not clear what this article means)


It might be that topics are not usually emphasized.
Maybe some very semantically marked topic fronting.
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Re: Noiraka language

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Noi could be an adjective meaning things related to the people.

a noi raka 'the Noi language' (r shouldn't be able to appear word-initially but maybe Noiraka is a very lexicalized phrase.)
a noi wesa 'the Noi people'
a noi saimo 'the Noi island'

Other people are not adjectives.

A taka o Egipiti 'the language of Egypt'
A wesa o Egipiti 'the people of Egypt'
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Re: Noiraka language

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Topics still to be covered:

- tense-aspect particles (still, yet, already ...)
- speech acts
- more on information structure
- incorporation
- locatives in syntax
- motion verbs
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Re: Noiraka language

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I added a directive particle ni (negative nuu), which appears in the epistemic-particle slot.

It doesn't usually appear in questions but in all directives coding request.

Ni hee tapeesa.
DIRECTIVE go school.DEF
'Go to school.'

It also starts clauses where the request is very indirect.

Nuu yaa ojo m-âoso.
NEG.DIRECTIVE exist sg1 THEME-money
'Please, I don't have money.' ~ 'Give me money.'


‐------


Polar questions are formed with tags:
hai (assuming a positive answer)
haûu (assuming a negative answer)


We yaa ooru m-âoso, hai?
EGO exist sg2 THEME-money, TAG
'Do you have money?'
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Re: Noiraka language

Post by Omzinesý »

Aspect particle usually appears between obligatory arguments and optional adjuncts.

Aspect particle is "optional". Most clauses don't have it.

PRECESSIVE
just VERBed

IMMINENT
is about to VERB

CONTINUATIVE
is still VERBing

PERFECT
already VERBed

...
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Re: Noiraka language

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I added preposition .

mê a 'for the _' is usually pronounced [m'e:].

It means 'for'. (It can be translated with English for in surprisingly many contexts.)

Benefactive

We yaa ojo t-i saapa mê eeri.
'I have a present for you.'

We hasuja ojo mê eeri.
'I'm singing for you.'

Purposive

We hee ojo kai, mê hasuja ôoj-ojo kai.
'I went there for I could sing there.'
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Re: Noiraka language

Post by Omzinesý »

Names

Koyu is what could be translated as first name. It is determined by the day you were born. There are 365 koyus. Every koyu has masculine and feminine variants formed with back-front sound symbolism. If you temporarily change your gender, you also change the gender of your name.

If you are born the 5th of November, your name is Nekati or Nokatu.


Kaasira is what we might call family name or clan name. Sons have their father's kaasira and daughters have their mother's kaasira. If you temporarily change your gender, you also use your mother's/fathers kaasira. There are around 20 bigger male clans and about 15 bigger female clans. There are also some smaller families that are originally immigrated to the culture or founded by fatherless boys.

People may also have nicknames but they are not official. So, naming your child in Noiraka culture does not demand any creativity.



Traditionally, kaasiras were also political units. Common "national" decisions were made by the gathering of the eldest of the bigger kaasiras.
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Re: Noiraka language

Post by eldin raigmore »

I like it!
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